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Charlotte Mason in Modern English
Charlotte Mason's ideas are too important not to be understood and implemented in the 21st century, but her Victorian style of writing sometimes prevents parents from attempting to read her books. This is an imperfect attempt to make Charlotte's words accessible to modern parents. You may read these, print them out, share them freely--but they are copyrighted to me, so please don't post or publish them without asking.
~L. N. Laurio
pg 238
XI.--Transcription
Value
of Transcription
The best way for eight or nine year olds to learn to write is not
letter-writing or dictation, but transcription,
done slowly and beautifully. Monica Bridges' A New Handwriting works well for
this, although some of the more ornate letters should be left out.
Transcription [copying text word for
word] should be a child's first spelling lessons. Children
should be encouraged to look at a word, imagine a picture of it in
their mind with their eyes closed, and then write it from memory.
Children
Should Transcribe Their Favorite Passages
Children will enjoy their work and take more pride of ownership if
they're allowed to choose material for transcription. Choosing one
verse from a favorite poem is better than writing the entire poem
because the child may get tired of the exercise [and the poem!] before the project
is finished. But they will enjoy a book of their own filled with verses
they've chosen themselves.
Small
Text-Hand--Double-ruled Lines
Double-ruled paper should be used at first [to encourage children to write larger
letters].
Children are eager to write very small, but once they've gotten into
the habit of writing small,
pg 239
it's harder to get them to write well.
Feeling a sense that their handwriting looks nice, and that the text
they're copying has literary beauty will help them to enjoy
transcribing. No more than ten or fifteen minutes should be spent on
early writing lessons. If they are any longer, the children get tired
and their writing gets sloppy.
Position
in Writing
When writing, children should sit so that the light source is at their
left. Their desk or table should be at a comfortable height.
It would be good if children learned from the beginning to hold their
pencil between the index finger and middle finger, using the thumb to
keep it steady. This way prevents the uncomfortable strain that results
from the usual way of holding a pencil. When the student is older and
has more writing to do, this could cause writer's cramp. The pen should
be held in a comfortable position, close to the point-end, fingers and
thumb bent a little, and the hand resting on the paper. The child can
lay the left hand on the paper to support himself. He should write in
an easy position, with his head bent, but not with his body stooped
over. Since children tend to make scratchy, spidery marks if the nib of
the pen is held sideways, they should use the flat of the nib. In all
writing lessons, the blackboard should be available to model and
practice.
Desks
The best desks I know of are the ones recommended by Dr. Roth. They are
single desks that can be raised or lowered, moved backwards or
forwards, and they have
pg 240
seats with a padded backrest and footrest. There may be others
available that are just as good, or even better, but these seem to be
sufficient in every way.
Children's
Table
For little children, it's a good idea to have a table just the right
height made by a carpenter. The top of the table should have two hinged
leaves that open in the middle to reveal a box instead of a drawer. The
leaves of the table-top make the lid. It's easier for children to keep
their books and writing materials neat and organized in this kind of
box than a drawer or ordinary box.
XII.--Spelling and Dictation
Of all the troublesome subjects that students spend hours on, dictation
is probably the most troublesome, at least the way it's usually taught.
People don't realize that every school subject rests on some kind of
philosophic principle.
A
Major Cause of Bad Spelling
Generally, the teacher dictates a passage phrase by phrase. She repeats
each one three or four times because the students ask questions and ask
her to say it again. Every line of the students' work has one to three
spelling errors. The teacher, trying to be conscientious, marks the
errors with red ink. The students use various methods to correct their
mistakes. They might exchange work and grade each other's paper,
correcting errors by copying the correct spelling from the blackboard.
A few unenlightened teachers still make students copy their errors,
with the correction written three or four
pg 241
times to learn it, and then spelled out loud to the teacher. The
teacher is surprised that, with all her painstaking effort, students
continue to make the same mistakes again and again.
The
Logic of Spelling
But the truth is, the ability to spell depends on the person's ability
to see the word and stamp a photographic image of it on their mind.
This is a skill and habit that must be developed in children from the
beginning. When they read the word 'cat,' they must be taught to try
and see the word with their eyes closed. This same technique works
equally well with big words like 'Thermopylae.' Imprinting words on the
retina seems to be the only sure way to become a good speller. Once an
error is made and corrected, there will always be doubt as to which
image is the right spelling, and which is the wrong one. Most of us are
never quite sure whether 'balance' has one l or two, and that's because
we saw both spellings when we corrected it. Once the eye sees a
misspelled word, the image is imprinted for good. If there is also an
image of the word spelled correctly, we will never be totally confident
about which image is the correct one. That's why the common way of
doing dictation almost guarantees bad spellers. Every misspelled word
makes an image in the mind that even the correct spelling can't
obliterate. Therefore, it's the teacher's duty to prevent wrong
spelling in the first place. And if an error is made, she must cover it
quickly before the image gets fixed in the student's memory.
Steps
of a Dictation Lesson
Dictation lessons done the following way usually result in good
spelling. A child of eight or nine studies a paragraph; older students
study one page, or two or
pg 242
three pages. The students prepares for the lesson by himself. He looks
at any word he isn't sure of and tries to see it with his eyes closed.
Before the dictation begins, the teacher asks him which words he thinks
might give him trouble. He usually knows, and she can write them on the
blackboard. She asks him to look until he has a picture of the word in
his mind. Then she erases each word one by one. If he still isn't sure
about a particular word, she should have him attempt to write it on the
blackboard from memory. She must watch closely so that, as soon as he
begins to add the wrong letter, she can erase it before it lodges in
his memory. When the word is on the board correctly, the student again
tries to make a mental picture. Then the teacher dictates the passage,
a phrase at a time, and only repeating once. She reads expressively
enough to make punctuation evident, and students are expected to
include correct punctuation. But she should not say, 'comma,' or
'semi-colon.' After students have spent maybe ten minutes preparing for
the dictation as outlined, there are rarely any spelling mistakes. If
there are any, the teacher would be wise to cover them with adhesive
paper or white-out to erase the wrong spellings from the student's mind
as much as possible. At the end of the lesson, the child should study
that word from his book until he's sure he knows it. Then he should
write the correctly spelled word on the adhesive paper, or over the
white-out.
Children cooperate enthusiastically with this kind of lesson because
they feel like they have a part in it. It also prepares them for the
second thing necessary to be a good speller, which is lots of reading
with a trained habit of making a mental image of words as they are read.
Bad spelling is usually a sign of not much reading,
pg 243
or, sometimes, reading so fast that words are skimmed over instead of
really seeing each word.
Spelling must not be overlooked and lost in the rest of the curriculum,
but children also shouldn't be nagged to spell. It's good to write
long, difficult names on the blackboard as they come up during history
or geography lessons. When the children say they've made a mental image
of the word, it can be erased. The secret to good spelling is
visualizing words from memory, and students must learn how to do that
by visualizing words as they read their other lessons. Children do
enjoy
learning to spell this way.
XIII.--Composition
George
Osborne's Essay
Amelia [Vanity Fair] praised a
teacher's good sense in seeing the talents of her beloved George. 'He
says that George can be whatever he wants, lawyer, or senator. 'Look at
this,' and she opened a drawer and pulled out a composition George had
written as a boy. His mother had saved it. Here is what it said:
Selfishness
Of all the faults that degrade human
character, selfishness is the worst and most hateful. Too much love of
self leads to the most monstrous crimes and causes the greatest
tragedies both in governments and families. A selfish man will leave
his family in poverty and bring them ruin. A selfish king brings ruin
on his people and often leads them into war. An example is Achilles, in
Homer's poem. He caused a thousand woes to the Greeks. The
pg 244
selfishness of Napoleon caused lots
of wars in Europe, and was the cause of his own death on the miserable
island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean.
'These examples show us that we
shouldn't consider just our own interest and ambition. We should also
consider the interests of others. --George Osborne.
Athene House, 24 April, 1827.
'Think of it! Only ten years old and writing so well, and even quoting
Greek stories!' his delighted mother said.
And she should be delighted.
Wouldn't any mother today be proud of such a literary work? Then why is
Thackeray poking fun at it? Maybe he is giving us this little essay to
make a point?
An
Educational Futility
Thackeray was a great moral teacher. He is challenging an educational
misconception that is still accepted today: it is useless to extract
original compositions from children. A young student's mind is in the
process of collecting material on which to make generalizations all of
his later life. If he is asked to write an essay on some abstract
theme, two wrongs are done to him. First, he is set before a brick wall
and expected to do what's impossible for him, which is discouraging for
him. And, even worse, morally speaking, since he has no thoughts of his
own yet to offer on the subject, he's forced to throw together bits of
common thoughts that he's
pg 245
heard. He offers this as his 'composition,' but it's a strain on his
conscience and offends his ego. These days, teachers don't demand so
much of students. But maybe, without realizing it, they give the ideas
that a clever student uses to stick into an essay he doesn't want to
write. Some teachers do even worse--they deliberately teach children
how to build sentences and bind them together.
Lessons
in Composition
Here's a sample from a series of 40 exercises designed to help students
write an essay about umbrellas. This is from a current favorite
textbook by a respected publisher:
Step 1
1. What are you?
2. How did you get your name?
3. Who uses you?
4. What were you once?
5. What were like then?
6. Where were you bought or found?
7. What are you made of?
8. From what sources do you come?
9. What are your parts?
10. Are you made, grown, or fitted
together?
Step 2
I am an umbrella and I'm used by many
people, both young and old.
My name comes from a word that means
a shade.
The stick probably came from America
and is
pg 246
very smooth, even, and polished so
that the metal ring can slide easily up and down the stick.
My parts are a frame and a cover. My
frame consists of a stick about a yard long, wires, and a sliding metal
band. At the lower end of the stick is a steel ring. This keeps the end
from wearing away when I am used in walking.
Step 3
Now replace I, have, my, and am with
it, is, and was.
Exercise
Now write your own description of it.
Such
Teaching is a Public Danger
And this is work intended for elementary-aged students! This kind of
thing is the final literary effort expected from young children!
The two volumes (what I quoted from was near the end of the second,
more advanced volume) are not examples of the worst texts. A few years
ago, the appalling discovery was made that composition was terribly
deficient and, therefore, badly taught both in elementary and secondary
schools. Since then, many books have been written, most of them similar
to the one I quoted from. The respected publishers don't realize that
authorizing such emotionless, harmful books by putting their name
on them is an insult to society. The law protects a child's physical
body, but his intellect is allowed to be destroyed with this kind of
starvation
diet and
pg 247
no one says a word! Worst of all, in every case, both authors and
publishers seem to think that any well-intentioned attempt is not only
excusable but to be praised. They don't realize that every effort
towards educating children needs an intelligent conception of children,
and a well-informed idea of what education means.
'Composition'
comes by Nature
As a matter of fact, when it comes to 'composition lessons,' there
should be as many as there are snakes in Ireland: none. Children under
nine take care of their composition instruction by narrating.
Narrations can be varied with simple exercises like writing about a
walk they took, or a lesson they studied, or some simple matter they
know about. They might write part of it and tell part of it. Before
they are ten, children who are used to using books will write good,
lively English easily and freely. At least, they will if they haven't
been frustrated with instructions. It's best to not even teach them
about punctuation until they notice them in their books. Our job is to
provide material by way of their other lessons, and let them handle
that material themselves. It's hard to believe, but composition is as
natural as jumping and running to children who have been allowed to
read lots of books. If they narrate first of all, they will compose
sooner or later, but they should not be taught 'composition.'
XIV.--Bible Lessons
Children
Enjoy the Bible
We tend to think that children will be bored with
pg 248
the Bible unless it's watered down and translated into cheesy
simplified English [much like this
modern CM paraphrase. :-) ]
Here's a story from the Autobiography of Mary Howitt that suggests
something else. She mentions the childhood of two little Quaker
girls. One day one of the girls, age six, found her way into a lumber
room and
caught sight of an old Bible with yellowed pages. She turned some pages
and saw the first chapters of Luke and the last chapters of Revelation.
Although her family read scripture each morning, these chapters were
new to her. The wonderful image of the Savior's birth, and the
beautiful description of the New Jerusalem filled her with a rapture
that she said no novel she ever read later could match.
And a boy of five is also mentioned: 'The children read the events of
the Holy Week with me every day. Z is so reverent and interested that
he seems almost excited.'
We have no way of knowing how receptive children are to religion. But
we know that they have the capability to understand the deep things of
God, and therefore we must be careful and reverent in the way we teach
them religion. As even any Darwinian can tell you, a child's feelings
and attitude are the most determining factor in his education.
Children
Should Know Bible Text
Between ages six and nine, children should be familiar with quite a bit
of scripture. They should have read the simple Old Testament stories
that are appropriate, and maybe two gospels.
pg 249
There are a few reasons why scripture from the Old Testament should be
read aloud to children, but
they can read gospel stories themselves
once they can read them smoothly and beautifully. Paraphrases shouldn't
be used; children like the wonderful, musical sound of King James
English. They will probably always remember their first images of the
Bible stories and even the very words they first heard them in. Such
memories are worth having. Half of the glib comments we hear these
days, and the anxiety just under the surface of it, come from total
ignorance of what the Bible actually says. Bible criticism is presented
out of context until the first thing people think of when they hear the
word 'Bible' is talking donkeys and the sun staying still for Joshua.
But if children can store the visions of the stories in their
imaginations, and feed their minds with the words of scripture as it
gradually unfolds, then they will have a panoramic 'big picture' where
people and events fit in their appropriate places. Little by little,
they will see the world as a play where God's goodness is in a constant
struggle with man's willfulness. Some men are heroic and take God's
side, but other foolish, stubborn men fight against Him. Children will
become inspired with enthusiasm to choose their side without anyone
prompting them or having to feel a spiritual experience.
Essential
and Accidental Truth
What about questions of whether certain Bible stories are myths, or
whether specific parables actually happened? Children have sincere
minds and these kinds of questions don't affect them
pg 250
because they have nothing to do with the main issues. During readings,
it's fine to discuss the most current scientific or archaeological
discoveries with children. The more we share these things with them,
the more real the Bible stories will seem. But what we shouldn't do is
disturb children by raising questions about how much of the Bible
account is really factual, any more than we challenge their readings in
English history. Let them hear stories such as Adam and Eve without
critical commentary. Even parables like the man who went fishing and
found a valuable pearl should be read at face value. In both stories,
it's the essential thread of truth embodied that's important, not the
minor details of when and where it happened. It is possible that the
'pearl of great price' was newsworthy then and on everyone's mind, and
maybe Jesus used the opportunity to illustrate essential truth. Believe
it or not, children's minds may be more fit to grasp and handle truth
than our own. Eventually they will realize and perhaps reject the
chance circumstances that the truth is wrapped in. But we should be
very careful what we say. Remember that neither we nor our children can
bear the stark white light of truth. If we're successful at exposing
the wrapping of the first fall--the tree, the fruit, the serpent and
the woman who succumbed--then we're left with nothing to wrap the
fundamental truths of responsibility, temptation and sin. Without some
kind of wrapping that we can latch onto, we can't hold onto the truths
themselves and they slip away.
We don't need to worry about choosing
pg 251
between essential truth and the accuracy of the story's logistical
details when we teach our children Bible stories. Essential truth
interprets our very lives, but circumstantial details only matter to
the story itself. The children are able to discern for themselves which
is essential and must be kept. Whatever is incidental will slip from
their memory. Children's minds should be well-stocked with Bible text
from the Old Testament and the gospels. But be sure they are read in a
way that's stimulating and fun, so they don't get tired of them.
Children get bored quicker than grown-ups. Many children rebel because
scripture is constantly drilled into them, day in and day out, even
before they reach school age. Remember, we're not talking now about
children's spiritual growth, but their academic education. Bible
lessons as part of their school will impress upon them from the
beginning that the knowledge of God is the most important knowledge
there is, and that gives their Bible lessons top priority.
Method
of Bible Lessons
The way to teach Bible lessons is very simple. Read aloud a few verses,
enough to hopefully cover a full episode. Read reverently and
carefully, with interesting expression. Then have the children narrate
using the original wording, if they can. They pick up the rhythm and
dignity of the King James language surprisingly quickly. Then discuss
the text in light of current research and criticism. Let the moral and
spiritual lesson reach them, but don't tell them how to apply it
personally. The best resource for teaching young children is Canon
Paterson Smyth's Bible for the
pg 252
Young. Mr. Smyth brings up both modern criticism and the latest
research. Children taught from his texts will not be disillusioned if
they hear that the world wasn't created in six days. They will
never doubt that the world was made by God. The moral and spiritual
teaching is comprehensive and convincing. A good plan is to sometimes
follow narration of the scripture text with his book, by reading one of
his lessons aloud. Children are more apt to apply Bible lessons that
aren't directly targeted at them. The teacher personalizes the teaching
with her enthusiastic reading, pictures she uses to illustrate the
lesson, and her own comments. [Read a
sample of a Bible lesson book by Mr. Smyth.]
Pictures
The Illustrated New Testament
has pictures that are both accurate and
reverent, which is a rare combination. An inexpensive copy of just the
individual gospel they're reading is nice, but it would be good to put
a nice cover on it for protection and honor. A trashed Bible isn't
something children should see. The
Holy Gospels with Illustrations from
the Old Masters, published by the S.P.C.K. is good. Studying the
kinds
of pictures included in that book should be a part of every child's
curriculum. The child will come to realize that the birth of Jesus and
the wise men's visit filled the imaginations of the classical painters.
They dwelt on every detail of the beloved Holy Nativity with so much
awe and joy. You don't get that same impression from contemporary
illustrations. The child who gets it when he's young will have a
foundation of reverent emotions on which
pg 253
to build his faith. But the pictures should be allowed to speak for
themselves. The children should look at the picture quietly for a few
minutes. Then the picture should be removed [or covered] and the child should
tell what they saw in the picture. Children rarely miss a little detail
of reverence or suggestive feature that the artist deliberately
included.
The different RTS publications from the Bypaths of Bible Knowledge series
will help the teacher illustrate modern research, especially Professor
Sayce's Fresh Light from Ancient
Monuments, and Budge's Dwellers
on the Nile.
Bible
Recitations
Children should start memorizing Bible passages as early as six or
seven years. It is wonderful to have beautiful, comforting, inspiring
scriptures stored in the memory. And who knows how this seed of
scripture might grow and what kind of fruit it may yield? But long
passages, like the story of the Prodigal Son, shouldn't be learned in a
way that is a burden to the child. First, the whole passage should be
read aloud with enough expression to bring out its beauty and
tenderness. Then, day by day, the teacher should recite two or three
verses of it, saying it three or four times until the children think
they know it. Only then should they try to recite those verses. The
next day, they can recite what they already know and add a few more
verses until they've learned the whole parable.
XV.--Arithmetic
The
Educational Value of Arithmetic
Of all the subjects a young child learns, the most important one
pg 254
might be arithmetic. It's not so much that he needs to be able to add
that makes it important, but using the skills he needs to come up with
the sum has a beneficial part in the rest of his education. This is so
true that those who want math emphasized and those who want language
emphasized have pretty much had total control over education until
recently.
We don't need to say how arithmetic has practical value for everyone,
no matter what their station in life. But arithmetic's practical value
is the least of its benefits. The main value of arithmetic and higher
math is the way it trains reasoning powers, habits of understanding,
quickness, accuracy, and being truthful intellectually. No other single
subject benefits as much from good teaching as arithmetic, and no other
subject results in such damaging results if it's taught wrong. For
instance, a child multiplies but doesn't get the right answer. So he
tries division, but that doesn't work, either, so he tries to see if
subtraction works. He doesn't see clearly how the problem needs one
process and only using the correct process will get the right answer. A
child who doesn't know when to add and when to divide with a simple
problem, hasn't been taught properly from the beginning, even though he
may be able to finish pages of multiplication problems or long division
correctly.
Problems
Should Be Within the Child's Grasp
How do we get the child to understand what kind of problem he's dealing
with? Give him simple word problems he can understand from the
beginning instead of lists of multiplication problems. Young,
enthusiastic teachers love to assign complicated long division problems
that fill the paper and keep the student busy
pg 255
for a good half-hour. When it's finished, the child is worn out and
wearied with work that serves no practical purpose. And, on top of
that, his answer isn't even right! The last two digits are wrong and
the remainder is too much. But there's no time to do it over and the
teacher doesn't want to discourage him after all that work, so she
marks it 'almost right.' But there is no such thing as 'almost right'
when it comes
to arithmetic. Instead of assigning such a long, complicated task which
offers no variety in exercising the brain, and which tends to make his
mind wander, say,
'Mr. Jones sent 607 apples to school, and Mr. Stevens sent 819. The
apples are to be divided between 27 boys on Monday. How many apples
will each boy get?'
The student must ask himself some questions. 'How many apples are there
altogether? How do I find out? And after I do that, I have to divide the apples into 27 piles to
find out each boy's share.' In other words, the child figures out which
processes he needs to use to get the required information. He is
interested, the work is done eagerly and the answer is found in no
time--and it's probably correct because his attention was focused on
the work. Problems should be chosen carefully. They should be easy
enough for him to do, but challenging enough to require a little mental
effort.
Demonstrate
The next thing is to demonstrate everything that can be demonstrated. A
child can learn his multiplication tables and do a subtraction problem
without ever understanding the reason for doing either one. He may even
become good at figuring and applying the rules but never understand
when or why to use them. Arithmetic becomes the first step in doing
real math only
pg 256
when every process is clear in the child's mind. 2+2=4 is pretty
obvious even without proving it. But 4x7=28 can be proved by
demonstrating with manipulatives.
The child might have a bag of dried beans. He can place them in four
rows of seven and then add the rows: 7 and 7 are 14, 7 more are 21, 7
more are 28. How many 7's are there in 28? 4. That's why we say 4x7=28.
And the child sees for himself that multiplication is nothing more than
a shorter way to do addition.
He should use a bag of beans, buttons or other counters in all his
early arithmetic lessons. He should be able to manipulate them freely,
and even to add, subtract, multiply, and divide in his head, before
he's ever given a list of problems to figure on his paper.
He might arrange an addition chart like this with his beans--
0
0
0 = 3 beans
0
0 0
0 = 4 beans
0
0 0 0 0 = 5 beans
and be practiced until he can tell without counting, and without
looking at the beans, that 2+7=9, etc.
In this way, with 3, 4, 5, --all the way up to 9. As he learns each set
of math facts, the 4's, for instance, he should practice with imaginary
objects, such as 'four apples and nine apples,' or 'four nuts and six
nuts.' Then, finally, he can work with abstract number symbols--6+5 or
6+8.
A subtraction chart can be worked on at the same time as addition. As
he works out each line of addition facts, he can go over the same thing
working backwards by taking away one bean or two beans instead of
adding them, until he can answer readily, 'what is 2 from 7?' or 'How
many is 2 from 5?' After working out each line of
pg 257
addition or subtraction facts, he may write that line on his paper with
the proper symbols if he knows how to make them. It takes more mental
effort to understand subtraction than addition. The teacher must be
patient enough to go slowly--one finger from four fingers, or one nut
from three nuts, etc., until he feels confident with it.
When the child can add and subtract freely up to 20, he can work out
his multiplication and division tables with his beans until he gets to
6x12. At that point, he can break down the problem, such as 'two times
six is twelve,' which he can see by laying down two rows of six beans.
When he's able to say quickly, without even glancing at his beans, that
2x8=16 or 2x7=14, then he can take 4 beans, 6, 8, 10, 12 and divide
them in two piles. From that he can tell how many twos are in 10, 12,
and 20, and then continue in the same way for each multiplication fact,
working out division facts.
Word
Problems
Now the child is ready for more challenging word problems, such as 'A
boy has two baskets of ten apples. How many bags of four can he make?'
He'll be able to work with a bigger variety of numbers, like 7+5-3. If
he needs the beans, let him use them. But he should be encouraged to
use imaginary beans as a way to get him closer to working with abstract
numbers. Meticulously graduated teaching and some mental effort every
day from the child from the very beginning might help him develop real
ability in mathematics. And it will definitely help him develop habits
of concentration and working the mental muscle.
Notation
When the child has no problem working with small numbers, he will face
a challenge. How successfully he meets this challenge will
pg 258
determine whether he will appreciate mathematics as a science. On this
rides his ability to learn from all the math problems he'll do from
here on out. He must understand our system of notation [the written symbols we use to signify
numbers and place value]. Here, just like before, it's best to
begin with concrete, tangible objects. Let the child understand that
ten single units is one group of ten, such as ten pennies in one dime.
Give him fifty-two pennies and point out how inconvenient it is to
carry so many heavy coins around while shopping. So we use lighter
money, such as dimes. How many pennies are in a dime? So then, how many
dimes can he exchange for his fifty-two pennies? He divides his pennies
into five piles with two left over and finds that fifty pennies are (or
are worth) five dimes. If I buy two apples at twenty-one cents apiece,
the clerk gives me a bill for 42 cents. Show the child how to put down
the pennies, which are worth less, to the right, and the dimes, which
are worth more, to the left.
When the child is able to work freely with dimes and pennies and he
understands that the number two in the right hand column means two
pennies and the number two in the left column means two dimes,
introduce him to the concept of tens and units. Be patient and work
slowly. Tell him about uncivilized peoples who can't count beyond five.
When they want to express some immense number, they'll say, 'five-five
beasts in the forest,' or 'five-five fish in the river.' But we can
count as high as want, all day long for years on end without ever
coming to the last number. That's because we only have a few numbers to
count with and
pg 259
only a few symbols to express them with. We only have nine numerals and
a zero. We can take the first numeral and the zero to express a new
number: ten. After that, we have to begin again until we get two tens,
then again until we reach three tens, and so on. We call two tens
'twenty' and three tens 'thirty' because 'ty' is from the old German
word tig that means 'ten.'
But if I see just a number, 4, how do I know if it means four tens or
four
ones? There's a simple solution. The tens have a place of their own. If
you see the 4 in the ten's place, you know it means forty. The tens are
always behind the units, at the left. When you see two numerals side by
side such as 55, the left-hand numeral is the tens and the right hand
number is the units.
Let the child work with tens and units until he has mastered the idea
that the number on the left is ten times the number on the right. When
he laughs at the idea of writing 7 single units in the tens column and
making it look like 70, then he is ready to extend his understanding to
hundreds. He will have no trouble with hundreds if he understands the
principle clearly, that each place value to the left is ten times more.
Meanwhile, don't give him lists of arithmetic problems to figure. Don't
let him work with notation symbols larger than he's been taught. When
he gets to the point of 'carrying' in addition or subtraction, make
sure he says 'two tens' or 'three hundreds' and not just 'two' or
'three.'
Weighing
and Measuring
If the child doesn't get a firm grasp at this stage, he'll never get
beyond trying guess which rule to use. In the same
pg 260
way, he should learn about weights and measures first hand: by weighing
and measuring real things. Let him use scales and sand or rice with
paper bags. Let him put together perfectly measured bags of sand or
rice in pounds and ounces. Although this exercise isn't arithmetic per
se, it is very educational. It teaches the child to judge how much
things weigh and it encourages neatness, skill in handling materials,
and quickness. In the same way, let him work with a ruler and tape
measure and draw up charts. Besides measuring the obvious things, let
him try to estimate weights and measures. How many yards is the
tablecloth? How many feet long and wide is the map, and the picture
over the mantle? How much does he think this book would weigh if he
wanted to mail it first-class? This kind of skill will serve him well
in life and should be cultivated. While busy measuring and weighing, he
will naturally come face to face with the concept of fractions, and
'half a pound,' and 'a quarter of an ounce,' etc.
Arithmetic
is a Means of Training
Arithmetic is a great way to train children to be strictly accurate,
but a bad teacher can encourage a disregard for truth. An inferior
teacher allows copying, prompting, telling, helping over difficulties
and working towards a solution when the answer is already known. Just
as bad, she says that an answer is 'nearly' right, because just the
last two digits are wrong, or whatever, and then she has the student
work it over again. But a sum is either wrong
pg 261
or right--it can't be
somewhere in between. And if it's wrong, it's wrong. The student
shouldn't be allowed to think that what wasn't done properly the first
time can just be fixed to make it right. There is no going back. But he
can move forward. Maybe he'll get the next one right; a wise teacher
will make sure that he does. She'll give him new hope. But the wrong
sum needs to be left alone. Therefore, his progress should be carefully
graduated. There is no subject like arithmetic where the teacher has a
real sense of drawing out new power in a child from day to day. Don't
offer him a crutch, he needs to be able to go in his own power. Give
him short sums using words rather than figures. Excite him so that his
enthusiasm prompts him to work more quickly and with greater focus. His
mental growth will be as obvious as seedlings sprouting in springtime.
The A
B C Arithmetic
Instead of spending more time discussing elementary arithmetic, I'd
like to recommend A B C Arithmetic
by Sonnenschein & Nesbit. Their method is based on a passage from
John Stuart Mill's Logic that
says,
'The basic truths of the science of math rest on what we know with our
senses. They are proved by seeing and touching objects, and figuring
out naturally what numbers break down into. For instance, if you have
ten balls, it's easy to see that they can be arranged in two groups of
five, or six and four. All of the improved methods for teaching
arithmetic work on that fact. Anyone who wants the
pg 262
child's mind to really understand when learning arithmetic, anyone who
wants children to understand numbers and not just to work ciphers, is
now teaching through the use of the senses [handling manipulatives].'
That's the only fault with this otherwise excellent book. It's true
that the basic truths of numbers rest on the senses, but, after
handling manipulatives for awhile, children do learn to associate
numbers with objects so that they begin thinking in numbers instead of
objects, which is the beginning of math. Therefore, I think that too
many complicated manipulatives--an elaborate system of fancy cubes and
props instead of simple tens, hundreds, and thousands, insults the
child's intelligence by teaching more than is needed, and puts more
emphasis on the manipulatives than on the numbers they're supposed to
be illustrating.
But dominoes, beans, line graphs on the blackboard help children to
grasp the concept of a large number by using a smaller number. Seeing a
symbol of a large number is one thing. Working with that symbol is a
different matter.
Except for that one minor flaw, which doesn't make the books any less
effective, the books are delightful with their careful analysis of
numbers and well-planned graduation of work so that only one difficulty
is presented at a time. The examples and little word problems were
written by someone who obviously knows and likes children. Anyone
interested in teaching
pg 263
arithmetic should read Mr. Sonnenschein's paper on 'The Teaching of
Arithmetic in Elementary Schools,' which is in a Board of Education
publication.
Preparation
for Mathematics
In the 1840's and 50's, it was thought that continually being exposed
to visible signs of geometrical forms would result in the inner mind
developing mathematical genius, or at least developing an inclination
towards math. But when educationalists of those days gave children
boxes of geometric forms and taped cubes, hexagons, pentagons and other
shapes on every inch of school wall space, they forgot one thing: we
all tend to get bored, especially children. When something bores us, we
feel repulsed by it. Dickens' Hard
Times has an example of this in Mr. Gradgrind's schoolroom which
included lots of outlined shapes. John Ruskin exposes the mistake in a
more friendly way than Dickens did. He wrote that geometric shapes
abound in nature, and children should experience them in the beauty of
the living world. It's backwards to try to plant the image of a shape
in a child's mind in artificial ways in the hopes that seeing the form
of the shape will give him the idea of geometry. For
pg 264
a beginner, it's probably always the idea that begets the form, not the
other way around. Only a trained mind could beget an idea just by
looking at the form of a shape. I don't think children need any direct
preparation to make them ready for math. If a child is allowed to
think, and hasn't been pressured to cram for tests, he will be
delighted with learning math when he's old enough. Mathematics are such
a great subject because normal minds naturally love it and are able to
study it. Too much elaboration, either by preparing or over-teaching,
makes math less interesting.
XVI.--Natural Science
A
Basis of Facts
As far as natural science, I will only repeat what I said in an earlier
chapter. Nothing in a child's education is more important than laying a
foundation of information from his own first-hand observation. All of
his future scientific knowledge will be based on this. He needs to
spend hours and hours in the open air, in the country, if at all
possible. He needs to look and touch and listen. He needs to
consciously notice every habit or structural aspect that sets apart
each animal, bird, insect. He needs to take note of the way different
plants grow and how they reproduce. He needs to develop the habit of
asking why--Why does the wind
blow? Why does the river flow? Why is a leaf-bud sticky? And don't be
too quick to answer all his questions for him. Let him try to think
through the problem for himself as much as he's able. And, most
important, when you do step in with the answer, make sure it isn't some
dry information you got straight from a textbook or encyclopedia. Let
him have as much insight as possible
pg 265
and, in most areas of science, he can be brought up-to-date with
current modern thought. Don't overwhelm him with too many Latin names.
If he discovers by himself (or with the help of a couple of leading
questions) when comparing an oyster and his pet cat that some animals
have backbones and some don't, it's not as crucial that he know the
word 'invertebrate,' as that he can sort the animals he knows about
according to that difference.
Eyes
and No-Eyes
There's an illustration of how this kind of education works in Evenings at Home, where 'Eyes' and
'No-Eyes' go for a walk. No-Eyes comes home bored. He didn't see
anything and found nothing to interest him. But Eyes is burning to tell
all about a hundred interesting things he saw. As I've already tried to
say, it's inherent in children to find out things for himself by
nature. It's up to the parent to give him many opportunities of all
different kinds, and to provide guidance to encourage and direct his
observations so that, even though he doesn't know the technical
scientific principles of classification, yet he's collecting what he
needs to make such classifications without even being aware of it. It's
not necessary to repeat everything about this from the earlier part of
this book, but it's true that a child's future depends largely on how
much real knowledge he acquires and how much he observes intelligently.
Herbert Spencer asked, 'Do you think that an ignorant, dull mind can
appreciate the poetic beauty of a round rock with parallel scratches in
the same way as a geologist who knows that a glacier slid over this
rock millions of years ago, leaving the scratches? The truth is, people
who have never become interested in science can never appreciate most
of the beauty that
pg 266
surrounds them. Anyone who hasn't collected plants and insects as a
child, can't even dream of all the interesting things he can see in the
local lanes and shrubs.'
Principles
Related to this, I'd like to recommend The Sciences by American Edward
Holden.
This book is what I have in mind. It is a suitable way to reach the
sensible and intelligent minds of children. This is what I mean by a
'first-hand' book. Mr. Holden knows his subject and he understands
children, and he presents information in the form of simple
conversations between children. There are about 300 topics covered:
sand dunes, dredging, hurricanes, echoes, prisms, the diving-bell, the
Milky Way, and more. What makes this book so wonderful is that it's
friendly and takes time to explain each subject naturally. Topics are
divided into groups according to which scientific principle they
explain. There
are many simple experiments that children can do themselves. This quote
from the preface is an invitation to teachers:
'The goal of this book is to provide reading at home or school that
will broaden children's minds in the area of science and show how
science is relevant in art and everyday life. It is
pg 267
not a textbook, although it does teach the fundamental principles of
science. Its purpose is to help children understand the physical world
around them.
The Sciences Can Be Comprehended by Children
'Everything that happens in nature is orderly, governed by a scientific
law, not some kind of magic. Real people understand these things; why
can't the child himself be one of the people who understands them? A
child can't understand every technical detail about locomotives, but he
can understand the principles of how they work in a general way. If
someone explains the well-understood general law behind it, the child
can understand how a locomotive is just one application of it in
practice. The purpose of the book is to awaken the child's imagination,
to explain useful information, to open his mind to wisdom. Even more,
its purpose is to inspire children to want to observe things and to
have a real, life-long interest in the world around them.
'Astronomy, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and geography are
explained as thoroughly as possible and enhanced with examples from
familiar things. In astronomy, for example, emphasis is on things the
child can actually witness himself, and he is told how to do this. The
rising and setting of the stars, the phases of the moon, and how to use
a telescope, are explained in simple words. These things seem
mysterious to a child, but they are not magical. Instead, his attention
is drawn to deeper mysteries. Scientific phenomena are shown to be
cases of scientific laws in action. And this is done, not just for
astronomy, but other sciences.
'Common phenomena, such as steam,
pg 268
shadows, reflected light, musical instruments, echoes, etc., are
explained by what causes them. Where experiments would help, they are
simple and fully described and illustrated. They work as well in a
schoolroom as in a home. This book was written because I believe that a
lot can be done to help children understand the world they live in, and
I want to be part of that help.'
I'd also like to mention a Parents Review article from April 1904 by H.
H. Moore about educational pioneer Richard Dawes (part 2 of that
article is online here)
In 1841, while he was a Rector at Kings Somborne parish, he worked with
uneducated and debased agricultural villagers. The whole story is
interesting, but our current topic is science, which his school focused
on.
As
Taught in a Village School
This was Mr. Dawes' goal: 'I wanted to teach what would be useful and
interesting to these children, knowing what kind of lives they would
most likely live. I wanted to teach them about common, everyday things.
They were shown how many of the familiar things around them were
interesting, and how knowing about them would help them understand
principles that could be applied to other natural phenomena. Also,
understanding how things work and are constructed could have a
practical use
pg 269
later. A practical application was given to everything they learned,
nothing they learned was useless to them.' A list of some of the
subjects he taught will be the best commentary on Dawes' method:
'Some of the properties of air, explaining how its pressure enables
them to pump up water, having fun with squirts and popguns, to suck up
water through a straw; explaining the principles and construction of a
barometer, the common pump, the diving-bell, a pair of bellows. That
air expands by heat, shown by placing a half-blown balloon near the
fire, when the wrinkles disappear. Why chimney-smoke sometimes rises
easily in the air, sometimes doesn't; why there is a draught up the
chimney, and under the door, and towards the fire. Air as a vehicle of
sound, and why the flash of a distant gun fired is seen before the
report is heard; how to calculate the distance of a thunderstorm; the
difference in the speeds at which different materials conduct sound.
Water and its properties, its solid, fluid, and vaporous state; why
water-pipes are burst by frost; why ice forms and floats on the surface
of ponds, and not at the bottom; why the kettle-lid jumps up when water
is boiling on the fire; the uses to which the power of steam is
applied; the gradual evolution of the steam-engine, shown by models and
diagrams; how their clothes are dried, and why they feel cold sitting
in damp clothes; why a damp bed is so dangerous; why one body floats in
water, and another sinks; the different densities of sea and fresh
water; why, on going into the school on a cold morning, they sometimes
see moisture on the window, and why on the inside and not
pg 270
on the outside; why, on a frosty day, their breath is visible as vapor;
the substances water holds in solution, and how their drinking water is
affected by the kind of soil through which it has passed. Dew, its
value, and the conditions necessary for its formation; placing equal
portions of dry wool on gravel, glass, and the grass, and weighing them
the next morning. Heat and its properties; how the blacksmith can fit
iron hoops so firmly on the wheels of carts and barrows; what
precautions have to be taken in laying the iron rails of railways and
in building iron bridges, etc.; which materials are good, and which are
bad, conductors of heat; why at the same temperature some feel colder
to our touch than others; why a glass sometimes breaks when hot water
is poured into it, and whether thick or thin glass would be more liable
to crack; why water can be made to boil in a paper kettle or an
eggshell without its being burned. The metals, their sources,
properties, and uses; mode of separating from the ores. Light and its
properties, illustrated by prisms, etc; adaptation of the eye; causes
of long and short-sightedness. The mechanical principles of the tools
more commonly used, the spade, the plough, the axe, the lever, etc.'
'It may be a surprise that those subjects could be taught to rural
elementary-aged children. But it's true, they were taught in Kings Somborne
School, and they were taught so successfully that the children were
interested in what they learned and made good use of what they learned.
When Mr. Dawes hears that young children can't understand such complex
subjects in science, he says, What
distinguishes science
pg 271
is how simple it is. It may take a
genius to discover nature's laws
initially. But once the laws are discovered and understood by
scientists, they are within the grasp of a child. The principles of
science follow common sense. If these principles are taught in a
simple, common-sense way, then children can understand them easily and
readily. Students as old as ten or twelve can still be taught to
develop habits of watching carefully and asking questions. This
is
important to remember for those who decide which subjects to include in
a curriculum.'
When we read about Dawes' experiment, we wish we all had access to
someone like Dawes to teach our children. But at least he has shown us
what children should know, and Mr. Holden has provided us with a great
resource. Some chapters in Holden's book may be too complex for a
nine-year old, but most of the book will be within their ability to
grasp. But remember to do the experiments included. If Joyce's Scientific Dialogues can still be
found, it describes many simple experiments that children can do
themselves.
XVII.--Geography
I think geography is highly educational, but not because it includes
some scientific value. Geography has its share of scientific problems,
and some very
pg 272
interesting ones. It provides some opportunities to classify things.
But it's only physical geography that might be related to science, and
even then it touches on several different sciences. It's not a science
in and of itself. No, the reason geography is so valuable is because it
gives an opportunity to furnish the mind with ideas, and to add
pictures
to the imagination. That's what makes geography so educational.
Geography
As It's Usually Taught
How is geography usually taught? The child has to memorize the capital
cities of Europe, or the rivers of England, or the names of mountains
in Scotland, from some miserably dull textbook. He has to learn how
many miles long, or feet high, or population count, or find the names
on his map, whatever his teacher assigns. Poor child! His lesson is
difficult, but is it educating him? Is it developing his mental power
or broadening his mind? No, he'd learn more by watching a fly walk up a
window. But someone might argue, geography serves more purpose than
just educational. Shouldn't everybody know the kinds of things
geography teaches? Yes, but consider a classroom of children. Shouldn't
their geography lessons teach them the kind of things that grown-ups
would like to know? Consider how unreasonable we adults are. We would
never read a travel book that wasn't interesting, lively and
adventurous. Even when we go around with our Fodor's travel guide in
hand, we skip the dry facts and figures and read the interesting
descriptions of places. That's the kind of thing we like to know about
and that we remember
pg 273
easily. But we refuse such interesting tidbits for our children. We
don't let them have vivid phrases to dream about. No, we think they
need
facts, names and figures.
Geography
Should be Interesting
But, you might argue, although dry facts may be difficult to learn,
it's useful later in life to know those things. Not true, and here's
why. Those facts were never really received and assimilated by the
mind. They never became more than unattached vague terms of short-term
memory. Most of us have spent hours over the drudgery of memorizing
geography lessons, but how much do we remember? We only remember the
pleasant descriptions we heard from friends who visited Europe, or some
things from The Voyages of Captain
Cook, or some other adventure. And that's how children should
learn geography. To be educational, the child's mind must be filled
with ideas. His imagination must be enhanced with images. He must learn
geography in a way that he'll remember. In other words, he should learn
what's interesting to him. What's educational and what's practical both
work
together, and a child's geography lessons become his favorite part of
school.
How
to Begin
But where to start? First of all, children get their foundation for
geography knowledge by observing natural science during all those hours
of being outdoors that are so important, as I emphasized earlier. A
pond that gets water from a creek in the woods will help children
understand how a lake works,
pg 274
and will give an idea what a lake nestled in the Alps is like, or the
big lake in Africa that Livingstone watched his children paddling in.
In making these connections, there will be some pleasant discussion
about real places, which might be thought of as 'pictorial geography.'
After listening to that kind of interesting talk, the child will
unconsciously pick up the names of great rivers, mountains, deserts,
plains cities and countries in the world. At the same time, the child
should be getting his first concepts of how maps work by seeing you
make rough sketches as you talk with a few lines and dots on paper, or,
even better, a stick in the sand or dirt. 'This squiggly line is the
Rhine river, but you'll have to imagine the rafts and the island with
the Mouse Tower, and the Nuns' Island, and the rest. These are the
hills with their ruined castles on both sides. This dot is Cologne,'
etc. Even more, let these talks be about the scenery at home and
things you're familiar with. That way, when he later looks at a map of
his homeland, he'll see lots of names he recognizes that will bring
interesting landscapes to mind, places 'where Mom has been,' the wooded
flowery banks of a local river, the rolling hills of the next town that
are fun to run and roll on, the plains in the county across the river
where berries grow. And always give him a roughly sketched map of the
route when you take a trip.
What
Next?
Next, give him thorough, detailed knowledge of any country in the
world, and some county or district near his home. He doesn't need to
memorize 'the geography' of every country in Europe, or the names of
the seven continents. Those are merely
pg 275
meaningless names to him for the most part. Even if he does learn them,
he probably won't remember them. But if he can feel at home in any one
region, if he can envision in his mind the people there working and
having fun, the flowers and trees bearing fruit in their season, the
animals that are common there, and if he can see it all sympathetically
as an adventurous traveler, then he will know more than if he had
learned all the names on the map. The way to accomplish this kind of
teaching is simple and obvious. Read to him, or read to yourself and
tell him back a little bit at a time, an interesting, well-written
travel book such as Tropical World
or Polar World, both by G.
Hartwig, or Unbeaten Tracks in Japan by
Isabella Bishop Bird. You may have to leave out a lot, but every
anecdote or description that helps show something about the place will
enhance the child's education. Here, as with everything else, it isn't
how many things he knows about that counts, but how much he knows about each thing.
Maps
Maps should be used carefully. A map can be sketched during a trip and
then compared later to a real map of the region. The teacher can ask
the child for a description of a certain city or town marked on the map
to see how much the child really knows about the place. This also helps
the child to have intelligent ideas about physical geography. In his reading,
he may find a description of a volcano, or a glacier, or a canyon or
hurricane, and he'll want to hear more about it and ask how and why
questions about it, or about whatever interesting phenomena
pg 276
has captured his attention. In other words, he'll learn in the same way
that grown-ups prefer to learn themselves, although they rarely think
to let children learn in the same pleasant manner.
The
General Knowledge that a Child of Nine Should Have
If a half dozen well-chosen travel books have been read to a child
between the ages of six and nine, he will have some idea of what people
are like and what they do in every major region of the world. He will
have collected some reliable, valuable knowledge about the world that
will be a benefit to him all his life. And he will have developed an
interest in books and the habit of reading. Books that cover too much
ground like A Voyage in the Sunbeam by
Annie Brassey should be avoided, because they can breed confusing
ideas.
Particular
Knowledge
We are discussing lessons as tools in a child's education, and so far
the kind of learning I've discussed here has been what a child might do
at home in his free time. For school lessons, the best book I know of
is World at Home; or, Pictures and
Scenes from Far-off-Lands by Mary
and Elizabeth Kirby, for
children
aged 6 or 7. As they listen, they wonder, admire, imagine and
role play all kinds of scenes. A child's first geography lessons about
places should make him more observant of his own local environment.
They should make him notice the features of his neighborhood, its hills
and low places, where it's level, its streams and ponds. He should
spend a lot of time outside seeing these things. He should be able to
relate those things to generalized understandings of things, such as
what a river is, or island or lake. He should be able to make one in
the sandbox, or draw one on the blackboard.
Definitions
Definitions should be arrived at as he records these things. For
instance, before he learns the definition of a river, he should have
watched a stream and observed how it flows.
Children easily parrot facts, so the teacher will need to be careful
that he isn't assimilating mere word definitions, but that he has
worked out and understands what these things are from his own
observations and experiences. For example, the child sees a wide
stretch of flat land and his teacher explains something about it. Then
he reads something about 'Pampas' of Argentina in his book, and about
the flat land of Kansas, and little by little, he begins to understand
the idea of a plain and can
show what it's like in a tray of sand.
Fundamental
Ideas
By the time he's seven, or even earlier, the child finds that he needs
to know more. He's read about hot countries and cold countries, he's
watched the seasons where he lives, and the rising and setting of the
sun, he's repeated to himself,
"Twinkle, twinkle, little star,
How I wonder what you are!"
He knows a little about the ocean and the sea, he's seen the tide come
in and out, he's seen some roughly sketched maps and even made a few
himself. He has probably noticed the criss-cross lines on 'real' maps.
Now he is ready to learn about various things. There are some things
about geography that he's been introduced to that he really wants to
know more about.
The shape of the earth and its rotation are fundamental ideas, even
though they are difficult for a child to understand. It will be easier
as the child matures.
pg 278
In each case, the principle itself is simple. Children don't dwell on
the magnitude of the universe and planet rotations and continents like
adults do. Children have vivid imaginations and they can picture the
way the Earth moves, what makes the seasons, and other things without
needing to know how many exponential times larger the real things are.
The
Meaning of a Map
Geography should mostly be learned from maps. Talking about landscapes
and reading travel books is only an introduction to geography. When the
child begins real geography
lessons, he should be learning from maps. This principle is important.
No matter how many interesting facts and anecdotes a child may know
about Italy, if he isn't familiar with it on a map, then he knows
nothing about its geography. So his geography lessons should begin by
learning what a map is and how to use one. He should make a scale
drawing of how his classroom is mapped out. Then he should sketch out a
field, and then the plan of how his town is laid out. Gradually he
should be made aware that these scale drawings are maps. An explorer
finds a new land and measures it and uses the sun and stars to record
where things are on the earth's surface, whether north, south, east or
west.
Then he can learn that the lines on a map are latitude and longitude,
and what that means. He will learn how water and land look on a map and
how rivers and mountains are represented. He should already know which
way is north, south, east, west and be able to use a compass. He will
learn that maps are always made as if
pg 279
you're looking north, which will help him figure out some things about
maps, such as direction, pretty quickly. The introductory ideas about
geography and how to use a map will provide what he needs to learn
geography in a fun way. He will think of geography as something he
likes because of the wonder and amazement from books and talks, and map
work will give him some mechanical knowledge that he will also enjoy.
Geography lessons only seem dull to a child when he begins with dry
facts and concise lists of things to learn. If we want our children to
enjoy geography, it's worth trying to make their first experiences with
it as interesting and fresh as we'd want them to be if it was us
learning.
XVIII.--History
A
Storehouse of Ideas
A lot of what was said about geography applies just as much to history.
This is another subject that should provide the child's mind with a
storehouse of ideas. History should enrich the chambers of his
imagination with a thousand tales, both tragic and heroic. History
should also form in him, without him being consciously aware of it,
principles that he will use later to judge the actions of nations. The
same principles are what he'll use to rule the 'nation of members'
within
himself. All of this is what he should get from his history lessons.
But what can he possibly get from a pathetic record of feuds, battles
and deaths that are presented to him as nothing more than 'a reign?'
And this is even more distasteful because it goes along with dates to
be memorized. He can't remember them right. He can get the last two
digits, but the centuries get mixed up so easily. How
pg 280
is he ever supposed to remember which events go with which reign? As
far as he's concerned, one king is like another and one period is like
another, except for the dates. But he muddles through somehow. He reads
in his friendly, chatty little book all about the reigns of kings, from
William the Conqueror to William IV and back to the vague times of
British rule. And what is the result? There is no better way to fill a
child with blundering ideas and narrow prejudices than to have him go
through this kind of course of English history. This is even more true
if his history book has a religious or moral tone and tries to point
out the moral lesson as well as record the facts. Moral teaching is
learned through history, but one small textbook in a classroom can't
possibly be broad enough to make any kind of judgment for the child.
Outlines
are Harmful
It's a serious mistake to think that children need to learn an entire
outline of history, or a simplified version of the whole history of a
country. He can't cover the geography of the whole world. Instead, let him
linger happily with the life history of one man living in a single time
period until he's practically thinking the same thoughts as that man
and feels a comfortable familiarity with that time period. Because,
although he is learning the intricate details of one person's life, he
is also learning about all the things that touched that person's life,
so he's learning about the whole period of a particular country's
history. It's okay if a child spends a whole year enjoying everything
he can find out about Alfred the truth-teller, or William the
Conqueror, or Richard the Lion-hearted and Saladin, or Shakespeare's
Henry V. and his victorious
pg 281
army. Let the child know about great people and common people who lived
during that time, and what the court was like, and how the crowds were.
Let him know what was going on in other countries at the same time our
country was doing a particular thing. If he decides that people from
another time period were more sincere, more generous, more purposeful
than we are in our modern world, or that people in another country used
to be greater than we are, then he is fortunate. [Translator's note--In an age where
everyone tends to be insular in their thinking and think that only
what's happening now is important, it's healthy to have a sense that we
can learn from those who came before us.]
Most
History Books written for Children are Also Harmful
When considering which resources to use for teaching history
intelligently, avoid most history books written specifically for
children. [Yet, when H.E. Marshall's
books and Van Loon's Story of Mankind were published, Charlotte Mason
recommended them, suggesting that perhaps when Charlotte wrote her
first
volume, no enjoyable history books for children existed yet.]
Also
avoid shortened summaries, outlines, and brief overviews. When you
consider how important history is to a child's education, there is no
place for vague abstract history texts. As far as history books written
for children, there is no need for them. Children who have been brought
up by educated parents are able to understand well-written, literary
history. They won't be attracted by twaddly, dumbed-down books designed
to try to make history easy for children. If some parts are skipped,
and mothers paraphrase in the way they naturally do so well, then the
children can hear the early history of their country from a
well-written popular history book with nice pictures. While reading to
them, it will be necessary to encourage them to ask questions, and to
ask them questions, to keep their attention and to be sure they're
getting the facts straight. This is the least of what will need to be
done. Even better would be to give them more thorough knowledge with
graphic details of two or three early historical periods.
Early
History of a Nation Best Suited for Children
The early history of a country is much better
pg 282
suited for children than more recent history because events move in a
few broad, simple lines, like an adventure. If there is any
statesmanship represented, it amounts to resourceful men doing their
best to cope with their circumstances. Mr. Freeman [possibly E. A. Freeman, 1823-1892, who
wrote William the Conqueror] wrote some interesting early
history for children. Still, it's even better to get an eye-witness
account if possible. When children are too young for exams and can
afford to take their time, they should be allowed to get into the spirit of history. They should read
at least one account written by someone who was there and knew
first-hand what happened. These old books can be easier and more
enjoyable to read than most modern history books, because writers
didn't used to know that history was supposed to have a veneer of
dignity. So they ramble along as pleasantly as a stream in the forest,
telling all about what happened. They stir your heart with their
telling of some great event. They give a lively version of a pageant or
show, they give you personal details of famous people and introduce you
to common people who never made their way into the history books. This
is just right for children who are eager to find out about real people
behind great events. They don't care about progress or legislation.
They
just want to know about the people. Children think of history as a
stage for the action of the people. A child who has heard the account
of one such old chronicler has a better foundation for future history
lessons than he would have if he'd memorized all the names, dates and
facts he might ever need for every exam in his future.
Some
Old Chronicles
The oldest, and the most exciting one to read, is Bede's Ecclesiastical
History of England. Bede wrote
pg 283
a lot about himself as early as the 600's AD. He wrote, 'I always loved
to learn and teach and write.' Professor Morley says, 'Bede has left us
an early history of England. It is concise yet often warm with life,
business-like and yet childlike in its tone. It is practical and
spiritual at the same time, honest and fair, and the work of a true
scholar who loves God and man. A lot of the most interesting things we
know about early English history are from Bede. In the 1100's, William
of Malmesbury said about Bede, 'Almost all of the knowledge about past
events died with him.' And Malmesbury should know. His Chronicles
of the Kings of England is considered the most perfect of all
chronicles. His most vivid and graphic accounts are about things that
happened in his own time, such as the dreary civil war of Stephen and
Matilda. And there is Asser, who wrote about his friend and fellow
worker, King
Alfred, saying, 'It seems right to me to explain more about what I
heard from my lord Alfred.' He says, 'When I came into his presence at
the royal villa of Leonaford, he received me honorably. I stayed at his
court for about eight months and read to him from whatever books he
liked and had on hand. That was his routine, along with all the other
things he did both physically and mentally during the day and night. He
would either read books to himself or listen while others read to him.'
Asser was not at the battle of Ashdown, but took the trouble to get the
story from eyewitnesses. 'But those who were there and would not lie
pg 284
say that Alfred marched up promptly with his men to give them battle.
King Ethelred stayed in his tent for a long time, praying.' And then
there are the Chronicles of the
Crusades by Joinville and Villehardouin which tell about Richard
Coeur de Lion by Richard of Devizes and Geoffrey de Vinsany, and Lord
John de Joinville's account of the crusade of St. Louis.
It's not necessary to add more to this list because just one such text
every year, or just the appropriate parts, will be enough to stir the
child's imagination and fill his mind with ideas. He will have heard
the words of people who were really there and saw and heard it all, and
they give their accounts in the matter-of-fact way that children
prefer. Forever after that kind of experience, it won't matter how many
dull outlines of history a child is required to read, he will always be
able to imagine history himself.
Age
of Myths
Every country has its heroic age before official history begins. If
there were giants around back then, the child wants to know about them.
He
has every right to savor whatever classic myths our nation has. To
start him with painted savages as his first introduction to historical
people makes his vision of the past as harsh and stark as a Chinese
painting. But what if we don't have any record of an age like Homer's Iliad and Odyssey? We can once again rely on
those old monks who chronicled the dim, distant past. In the 1100's,
while Malmesbury was writing his History
of the Kings of England, a Welsh priest named Geoffrey of
Monmouth was weaving the oral tales
pg 285
of the common people into an orderly collection called History of the
British Kings. These go back as far as King Brut, the grandson of
Aeneas. He claims to have gotten some of his information about kings
that no other historian had heard of from a 'book in the British
language that Walter, Archdeacon of Oxford, brought from Britainy.'
However he got it, his book tells us about Gorboduc, King Lear, Merlin,
Uther Pendragon, and, best of all, of King Arthur.
He makes Arthur sound many times greater and stronger than even
Alexander the Great. His book is a treasure that children should be
familiar with ten years before they ever read Idylls of the
King. Parents should use caution when reading from Monmouth, though.
His
adventure tales are amazing and fun, but when he stops writing about
wonderful stories and starts rambling on about historical facts and
people, he becomes confusing. Many of these chronicles were originally
written by monks in Latin, but are now available translated into
English. But the mother should be aware that some parts may need to be
edited as she reads. (Bohn's Antiquarian Library includes volumes by
Bede and Malmesbury, and Dr. J.A. Giles' Old English Chronicles
includes Asser and Monmouth.)
Jean Froissart wrote delightful
chronicles and was tame when writing about the time he spent in
Queen Philippa's court in England. His book is the best way for
children to learn about the French wars. And the child should learn as
much as he can about history this way. Whenever possible, the child
should get his first impressions of time periods from first-hand
accounts, not from
pg 286
modern historians who merely write commentaries and reviews. But
mothers should exercise discretion when using these old chronicles,
since they aren't all reliable.
Plutarch's
Lives
In the same way, the best way to begin learning about early Greece and
Rome is from Plutarch's Lives.
Alexander the Great becomes more than
just a name to children who read about him in Plutarch:
'When
the horse Bucephalus was offered to King Philip for thirteen talents,
the king went to the field with the prince Alexander and some others to
see him in action. The horse seemed vicious and hard to handle. He
refused to let anyone ride him or even speak to him, and would attack
any groom who tried to approach him. Philip was annoyed that they
had brought him such a wild, unmanageable horse. He told them to take
the
horse away. But his son, Alexander, who had been watching the horse
closely, said, 'What a horse, and they're going to lose him just
because they have nobody with enough skill and spirit to handle him!'
Philip
didn't pay any attention to him at first, but the prince kept repeating
himself and acting uneasy, so finally, King Philip said, 'Young man,
you criticize your elders as if you knew more than they did. Do you
think you can manage this horse better?'
'Yes,
I certainly could,' answered the prince.
'If
you aren't able to ride him, what penalty will you pay for being so
rash?'
'I
will pay the price of the horse.'
When
they heard this, everyone who was there laughed. But the king and the
prince agreed to the penalty, and Alexander ran to the horse, took hold
of the bridle and turned the horse towards the sun. Apparently he had
seen that the
pg 287
horse's
shadow was visible to the horse and kept moving as he moved, and was
spooking him. As long as the horse was agitated and fierce, he
continued speaking softly to him and petting him. When the horse calmed
down, he gently let his coat fall to the ground and leaped lightly on
the horse's back and was safely seated. Then, without pulling too hard
on the reins or using a whip or spur, he got the horse going. As soon
as he sensed the horse's uneasiness decreasing, and felt that the horse
only wanted to run, he put him to a full gallop and urged him on with
his voice and spurs.
King
Philip and all his court were worried for him at first and were
watching in silence. But when the prince had turned the horse around
and brought him back safely, they greeted him with shouts and cheers,
except for his father, who wept for joy. Kissing him, he said, 'My son,
find another kingdom that is worthy of your talents, because Macedonia
is too small for you!'
Thomas North's translation of Plutarch gives a vivid impression that
makes history seem as real and alive to children as the adventures of
Robinson Crusoe.
Again, knowing as much as possible about just one short time period of
history is far better than memorizing an outline of all known history.
And children are able to understand intelligent ideas told with
intelligent language. There's no reason to withhold the best that's
been written about the time period they want to know about.
History
Books
It's not easy to choose the right history books for children. Concise
summaries of the bare bone facts should be avoided. We must be equally
careful to avoid generalizations.
pg 288
A young child's mind naturally wants to gather information and group it
for making the kinds of generalizations later that adults tend to make,
and which is entirely appropriate and necessary [so long as we do it ourselves, thinking it
through logically.]
But, too often, we lack the ability to reason through things on our own
and we accept someone else's conclusions without question. Still, we
should avoid giving young children final conclusions about history that
are based on someone else's opinions. Children want all the details
about what happened and about the people involved for their
imaginations to work on. They start forming their own opinions little
by little as they learn more.
Mr. York Powell has explained the kind of teaching for young children
that I'm talking about. The preface of his book, Old Stories from British History,
says, 'The author chose the kinds of stories that he thought would be
enjoyable for his readers, and, at the same time, would give them some
knowledge about the lives of their forefathers and how they thought.
Therefore, he has not just written about important people like kings
and queens and generals. He has also written about ordinary people, and
children, and even birds and animals.' The book includes stories about
King Lear and Cuculain, King Canute and Otto the poet, Havelock and
Ubba, and many other brave, glorious tales. Powell's two books, Old Stories from British History
and Sketches from British History,
are perfect for our purpose because they are easy enough for children
to read for themselves. The stories are written in good, plain English
with a bit of charm, and lend themselves well to narration.
pg 289
It's interesting to hear 7 or 8 year olds tell back a long story from
this book without missing any details and getting everything in the
right order. Yet their narrations aren't merely parroted phrases from
the book. When a child really enjoys something, his individual
personality comes through in his exuberance at talking about it. With
this book, the child tells back the story accurately, but in his own
words while still retaining some of the author's style. By the way,
it's very important to let children narrate in their own way. They
shouldn't be coaxed and helped with cue words from the text.
A narration should have the child's unique stamp on it as evidence that
the material has been assimilated and gone through some processing in
his mind.
Narrations that are nothing more than rote memorizations are of no
value to the child.
I've already talked about the kinds of old chronicles that should
nourish children's minds. But often, these are too spread out to be
used successfully for narrations. It's better to use appropriate short
tales for narrating.
I'd like to mention two more books that children love. These encourage
patriotism and lay a wide foundation for later history lessons. They
are Tales from St. Paul's Cathedral
and
Tales from Westminster Abbey
by Mrs. Frewen Lord. It's wonderful to take children on a trip to
actually see St. Paul's Cathedral and Westminster Abbey in real life
and let them find the actual places where their heroes are enshrined.
The
children know so many details and are so alive with interest that they
inspire and teach even the grown-ups. Of course, there are many other
historical stories for children, and some of them are very good, like Prisoners of the Tower by Violet
Brooke-Hunt. But mothers should be careful. Choosing lesson books may
seem
simple, but it takes delicate tact and understanding with children,
especially when it comes to history.
pg 290
Many children of 8 or 9 will be old enough to enjoy A History of England, by H.O.
Arnold Forster, who is widely respected for his educational books.
Besides being a skilled writer, Mr. Forster has a gift for seeing a
defect and a way to fix it, and being able to spot what's missing and
fill it in. He noticed that English children weren't learning about the
things affecting their lives and the laws governing them. So he changed
that by writing The Citizen Reader
and The Laws of Every-day Life.
The History of England, or History, as the children call it,
forgetting that there is history in other parts of the world besides
England, was written as a collection of adventurous stories that don't
necessarily have relevance to political and financial holdings. But, as
Forster says in his preface, he was reluctant to use a title as
unpleasant as A Summary of English
History or An Outline of
English History.
Those titles seem at first glance to imply that the books have none of
the interest and romance that are always a part of what real people do,
and that an elaborated chronological table has been used instead of
interesting stories. But if you read English history and miss the
interesting, sparkling episodes and
pg 291
dramatic incidents, then you've missed all the fun and most of the
lessons history can teach if studied the right way. Forster succeeds
and his book is as full of interesting, sparkling episodes as it can
be, considering that he's writing to children who have no background in
history. He gives a survey of all of English history in a pleasant,
plentiful, well-illustrated book of about 800 pages. This example shows
what I mean, and don't we all wish we could have learned about
architecture
from such a clear paragraph: 'On
page 23 we have pictures of two windows. One is what is called a pointed window. All its arches go
up to a point. It was built a long time before the Tudor period. The
other arch was built in the time of Queen Elizabeth. In it the upright
shaft, or mullion, of the window goes straight up to the top without
forming an arch. This style of building a window is called the
Perpendicular Style, because the mullions of the window are
'perpendicular.' Some of the most famous buildings in England built in
Tudor times, and in the perpendicular style, are the Chapel of King's
College, Cambridge, and Hatfield House, where the Marquis of Salisbury
lives, in Hertfordshire.' Mr. Forster has done for children and for the
unread what Professor Green did for more advanced students with his
book, Shorter History of England--he
has shown many people that history
is fascinating. This is a good introduction to real history, and it
uses real information. The portraits [whether
this refers to illustrations or biographies is unclear] are
especially valuable.
pg 292
Dates
Children will need to have a sense that what they're reading has a
specific time when it happened before their collection of knowledge
gets too vast. To do this, make a century table, something like this
timeline chart, only longer. [Perhaps
what Charlotte meant looked like this?]To make one, divide
a long sheet of
heavy paper into twenty columns. Put the first century in the center
and let the rest of the columns represent a century, either BC or AD.
Let the child write the names of people he reads about in the century
they belong to.
At this point, children don't need to focus on exact dates, but this
simple table of the centuries will give the child a graphic memory of
when things happened. He will have a panorama of events pictured in his
mind in their correct order.
Illustrations
by the Children
History provides great material for narrating, and children enjoy
narrating what they've read or heard. They also love to draw pictures.
Some children who had read Shakespeare's Julius Caesar and Plutarch's Life of Julius Caesar were asked to
draw a picture of their favorite scene. The results showed how well
children can visualize, and, of course, whatever can be visualized in
the
mind is a possession for life.
The pictures these children drew are interesting from a psychological
point of view, too. They show what different and sometimes obscure
details appeal to the mind of a child. They also show that children can
enjoy figuring out mental challenges as much as educated adults.
Admittedly, the drawings aren't perfect, but, like the art of primitive
peoples, they tell the story directly and vividly. One girl, aged nine,
drew Julius Caesar conquering Britain. He is riding in a chariot
mounted on scythes [reaping sickles?]
and he is wearing
pg 293
a blue robe, complemented with the blue in the sky. In the distance, a
soldier is planting the Roman flag with a black eagle on a pink
background.
In the foreground, a Roman and a Briton are engaged in hand-to-hand
combat. Each has a very long sword. Other people are busy at various
things.
In another picture, Antony is making a speech after the death of
Caesar. The artist is an older girl and she shows more of the
architecture. In her picture, you look through an arch leading into a
side street. In the foreground, Antony is standing on a platform at the
top of some marble stairs. He looks scornful and indignant. Below is a
crowd of Romans in togas. Some are scornful, some are alarmed. In the
back is Antony's servant wearing a uniform and holding his master's
horse. Caesar is laying on the ground behind Antony and his royal
purple robe has been thrown over his body. The best part of the drawing
is that it tells a story.
Another girl, aged 14, draws a picture of Calpurnia begging Caesar not
to go into the Senate. Caesar is standing fully armed and looks
annoyed. Calpurnia is holding his outstretched hand with both of her
hands and is kneeling before him. Her loose blue night-robe and long
golden hair add color to the picture. Since this girl is older, her
picture shows more artistic skill.
Another student draws Brutus and Portia, very dignified, in an orchard
with a red brick wall with some shrubbery growing along it. Not much of
the story is apparent in this picture.
Another student shows the scene in the forum. Caesar is sitting in
royal purple. Brutus is kneeling before him and Casca is standing
behind his chair with a dagger in his outstretched hand, saying,
'Hands, speak for me!' while Caesar is saying, 'Why is Brutus kneeling
without his boots?'
pg 294
In another picture, Lucius is playing the harp for Brutus in a tent.
Brutus is armed head to foot and sitting on a stool. He is vainly
trying to read while Lucius, a pretty figure, is playing his harp. Two
armed sentries are sleeping on the floor.
One picture shows Claudius at the women's festival. He is disguised as
a woman. The ladies have wonderful eyes and are carrying flaming
torches.
One spirited picture shows Caesar reading his history to the conquered
Gauls. They are standing in rows on the hillside, listening to the
great man patiently.
In all of these pictures, some of which are drawn by even older
students, we see how different images are remembered by different
children as they listen to a great work. This glimpse into the minds of
children should convince us how important it is to nourish the mind
with good material. The kind of weak, diluted resources that schools
too often give to children do not stir their imaginations.
'Playing
at' History
Narrating and illustrating aren't the only ways that children express
the ideas that fill them when they are exposed to great materials. They
will also role play their history lessons, dressing up, making up
vivid, detailed episodes, acting specific scenes. Or they'll have a
stage and make their dolls the actors, while they paint scenery and
make them talk. There is no end to the creative ways children will find
when they have something to express.
It is a mistake to think that nature feeds children's imaginations, or
that their imagination works on a diet of dull children's storybooks.
pg 295
Let children have the kind of meaty material they need in their history
texts and historical literature, and their imaginations will be stirred
up without any help from us. The child will live out the intricate
details of a thousand scenes that he reads, even when he only reads
sketchy accounts about them.
XIX.--Grammar
Grammar
is a Difficult Subject
I won't say much about English and Latin grammar here. First of all,
grammar is the study of words, not things, and won't appeal to a young
child. He shouldn't be hurried into learning grammar. English grammar,
with its position and logical connection of words in sentences, is
especially hard to understand. In this respect, Latin grammar is
easier. It changes the form and shape of words to denote which case it
is, so it's easy for children to see the difference visually. For that
reason, it's more obvious to him than the abstract concepts of
nominative case and objective case, like we have in English. So, if all
he retains in Latin is declensions (noun/verb agreement and correct
gender) and a verb or two, it's better than nothing because it
illustrates how cases change even when English doesn't show it by
changing the forms of words.
Latin
Grammar
The best book I know of for 8-9 year olds beginning Latin is First Latin Course by Scott and
Jones. Children seem to like it, which helps them in studying it. But
it's still debatable whether it's best to begin Latin so young.
pg 296
English
Grammar is Logical
English grammar is a logical subject. It is made up of sentences and
where words are
placed in the sentence, instead of being made up of
words as single units and what their form says about them. So it's best
for a child to begin grammar with the sentence
rather than the parts of
speech. In other words, he should analyze sentences before parsing. He
should learn how to divide simple sentences into two parts: the thing
we're talking about, and what it is we're saying about it, before he's
lost in the confusing world of person, mood and part of speech. In this
example, the sentence would be divided like this: The cat / sits on the hearth.
'So then I picked up the next book. It was a grammar book. It said
remarkable things about nouns and verbs and particles and pronouns, and
past participles and objective cases and subjunctive moods. 'What are
all these things?' asked the King. The Queen did not know, but she said
it would be very good for children to learn. 'It would keep them quiet.'
It is important that children not be as confused as this bewildered
king and queen. So I'm including a couple of introductory grammar
lessons. A single visual example can be more useful than many
explanations.
LESSON I
When words are combined to make sense, we call it a sentence.
'Rice oats chair really good and cherry' is not a sentence, because it
makes no sense--in fact it makes nonsense!
'Thomas has read his lesson' is a sentence.
It is a sentence because it tells us something about Thomas.
pg 297
Every sentence talks about someone or something, and tells us something
about that someone or something.
So a sentence has two parts:
1. The thing we speak of;
2. What we say about it.
In our sentence, the thing we speak of is 'Thomas.'
What we say about him is that he 'has read his lesson.'
The thing we speak of is often called the SUBJECT. Subject just means the thing we're talking about.
People sometimes say 'the subject of conversation was so and so,' which
is another way of saying 'the thing
we were talking about was so and so.'
To learn:
Words put together so as to make sense form a sentence.
A sentence has two parts: the thing
we speak of, and what we say
about it.
The thing we speak of is the SUBJECT.
Lesson I Exercises
1. Put the first part to these examples:
---has a long mane.
---is broken.
---cannot do his math.
---played for an hour;
etc., etc.
2. Put the second part to---
That poor boy---.
My brother
Tyler---.
The broken
flowerpot---.
Bread and
jelly---.
Mr. Brown's
tool-box---;
etc., etc.
pg 298
3. Put six different subjects to each half sentence in 1.
4. Make six different sentences with each subject in 2.
5. Say which part of the sentence is missing, and fill it in:
Has been mended
Tyler's knife
That little dog
Cut his finger
Ate too much
fruit
My new book
The snowdrops in
our garden, etc., etc.
Note: Remember to call the first part of each sentence 'the subject.'
Draw a line under the subject of each sentence in all the exercises.
LESSON II
We can make a sentence with only two words--the name of the thing we
speak of and what we say about it:
John writes.
Birds sing.
Megan sews.
We speak about 'John.'
We say about him that he 'writes.'
We speak about 'birds.'
We say about them that they 'sing.'
These words, writes, sing, sews, all
come out of the same group of words, and the words in that group are
pg 299
the most important words of all, for this reason--we can't make sense,
and therefore can't make a sentence, without using at least one of them.
They are called VERBS, which means words,
because they are the most important words of all.
A verb always tells one of two things about the subject. Either it
tells what the subject is, as--
I am hungry.
The chair is
broken.
The birds are
merry;
or it tells what the subject does, as--
Alison writes.
The cat mews.
He calls.
To learn--
We can't make a sentence without a verb.
Verb means word.
Verbs are the most important words.
Verbs show that the subject either is
something: He is sleepy; or does
something: He runs.
Lesson II Exercises
1. Put in a verb of being:
Megan ____
sleepy.
Boys ____ rough.
Girls ____ quiet.
He ____ first
yesterday.
I ____ a little
boy.
Tyler and Gage
____ swinging before dinner.
We ____ busy
to-morrow.
He ____ punished;
etc., etc.
pg 300
2. Make three sentences with each of the following verbs:
is, are, should be, was, am, were, will be
3. Make six sentences with verbs of being.
4. Use a verb of doing in these sentences:
Tigers ____.
The boy with the
pony ____.
My cousins ____;
etc., etc.
5. Make twenty sentences about:
That boy in
shorts ____
with verbs showing what he does.
6. Find the verbs, and say whether they are verbs of being or doing, in
these examples:
The bright sun
rises over the hill.
We went away.
You are my
cousin.
Gage goes to
school.
He took his
pencil.
We are seven.
7. Count how many verbs you use in your talking for the next ten
minutes.
8. Write every verb you can find in these exercises, and draw a line
under them.
XX.--French
French [or any foreign language]
should be learned in the same way we learn English--not by studying its
grammar, but as a living language. Training the ear to distinguish
subtle differences in sound, and training the lips to reproduce French
phonetic combinations is an education of the senses that should be
started as soon as possible. All educated people should be able to speak
pg 301
French. Sir Lyon Playfair was once speaking at a conference of French
teachers. He passionately lamented our lack in this area and, as a role
model, talked about a school in Perth in the 1500's where Scottish boys
were required to speak Latin during school hours, and French the rest
of the time. England is the only civilized country these days to be so
slow to learn to speak other languages. But it's probably because of
the way it's taught rather than a natural inability to learn.
In learning a second language like French, two things are necessary:
some vocabulary, and not being afraid to feel awkward pronouncing the
new words. Both of these should be taken care of in early childhood.
Children should never see French words in print until they feel as
comfortable saying them as they do English words. The reason we have so
much trouble pronouncing French is because we like to give printed
combinations of letters the sounds they would have in our own
language--when we see French words in print, we try to sound them out
as if they were English. A child should add perhaps six new words to
his collection every day so that his vocabulary is constantly growing.
At that rate, the child could learn 1500 words in a year! A child who
knows that many words and knows how to use them is a child who can
speak French. Of course, his teacher will make sure that, as he learns
words, he's also learning idiomatic phrases. And as the child learns
more and more words, she will make sure that he uses them in sentences
every single day to keep them fresh in his memory. If she keeps track
of new words by writing them in a notebook, it will be very easy for
her to do this. A young child hasn't learned to be embarrassed about
pronouncing foreign words. He simply says them as naturally as if they
were English.
pg 302
But it's very important that he acquires the correct accent right from
the beginning. It's not generally a good idea to put young children
under the influence of a French caregiver, but it might be possible for
six families to get together to hire a French lady who could spend a
half hour with each family every day.
Monsieur
Francois Gouin's Method
There is a serious attempt to approach the study of foreign languages
rationally, using science. Francois
Gouin's book, The Art of
Teaching and Studying Languages,
is the most important attempt so far. It makes the scientific study of
languages applicable to practical teaching. In fact, the reform we've
seen in the way modern languages are taught is because of this book.
The foundational concept that new languages have to be learned in the
same way children learn their native language, is correct, even if the
details of carrying it out aren't. For instance, the method of
analyzing a language and dividing it into about fifteen exhaustive
series, may not be right. We know that the ear, not the eye, is the
physical part of the body that learns language, in the same way that
the mouth, not the ear, eats food. If all Gouin's book did was to point
out those two facts, it would be an invaluable contribution to
educational theory. His third point is just as important--that the verb
is the key to the sentence. It is the living bridge between thought and
action. He also points out that children think in sentences, not
disjointed words, and their sentences have a logical sequence. This
sequence is ordered by time,
pg 303
such as the order of events in the growth of a plant, or in baking a
loaf of bread. As the child realizes these events, he needs to express
them. Then his ear seeks the words he needs to use, his mind remembers
those words, and his tongue reproduces them so that he's able to say
the thing he thought of.
Monsieur Gouin's method should be more successful than any other in
steeping the student in French thought, or German, whether the student
is a child or adult. If you spend all day trying to figure out how to
express a sequence of events in French, then you will start thinking in
French, and dreaming in French, and you'll end up speaking French. And
now there's a delightful sense that finally we'll be able to teach all
subjects in the new language. You can have any series you want--an Art
Series, Bee Series, River Series, Character Series, Poet Series. All it
takes is thinking out the subject and sequencing it, then finding the
right verbs, nouns and phrases. Soon you can say short sentences and,
by combining those with a connecting word like 'and,' you find that you
can say everything needed to teach the whole subject. It's quite a
surprise, like the child's game where you can find out the most
interesting and obscure things just by asking a dozen questions.
The
'Series'
So then, a language learned using Gouin's method is a liberal education
in itself! It makes you realize that the ideas that the mind is aware
of are really few and simple, and how few words are truly necessary to
express them.
You really learn to think in
the new language
pg 304
because, even in your native language, you only have vague impressions
of these ideas, [but you've worked
them out into the new language, so it's easier to consider them in the
new language for which you've put words, than in your native language.]
You start ordering your thoughts in the new language and, once you've
done that, you'll never forget those words.
Here is an example of an early level 'series.' It shows all the steps a
servant goes through to light a fire. [The
verb is italicized.]
The servant takes a box of
matches,
She opens the match-box,
She takes out a match,
She closes the match-box,
She strikes the match on the
cover,
She lights the match,
The match smokes,
The match ignites,
The match burns,
And spreads a smell of
burning over the kitchen,
The servant bends down to the
hearth,
Puts out her hand,
Puts the match under the
kindling,
Holds the match under the
kindling,
The kindling catches fire,
The servant lets go of the
match,
Stands up again,
Looks at her fire burning,
And puts the box of matches
away.
But any attempt to quote the book gives an incomplete picture of
Gouin's book.
How
Does the Child Learn?
Whatever else can be said about Gouin's methods, the way he arrived at
them is undoubtedly scientific. He learned from a real child.
'Unfortunately, children have been a mystery up to this point, and we
have never taken the trouble to solve or even examine the mystery . . .
'
pg 305
'A child utters nothing that means anything at two years of age. But at
three, he suddenly is fluent in a language. How does he do this? Is
there some explanation of this miracle? Is it something we will never
know? . . . Ask any child, he will tell you that the part of the body
related to language is not the eye, it's the ear. Eyes are made to see
colors, not to hear sounds and words . . . This constant stress, [of forcing the eye to be the tool for
learning foreign language,] goes against nature, and is bad for
the eyes.'
Gouin is referring to the challenge he undertook to learn German. He
knew everybody's Methods, he memorized the whole dictionary, and found
that he still couldn't truly speak even one word of German.
He returned to France after ten months and found that his nephew, who
had been two-and-a-half and not yet talking when he'd left him, had
accomplished in ten months what he himself couldn't do. 'What!' I
thought. 'My nephew and I have both spent ten months learning a
language. He did it by playing around his mother, picking flowers,
chasing butterflies and birds, without getting tired of it, without
even consciously trying! And now he's able to say whatever he thinks,
tell about what he sees, and understand others. When he began, his
intelligence wasn't even obvious, it was merely a glimmer of hope. And
I, who am an educated, scientific philosopher with strong determination
and a good memory, have learned practically nothing!'
pg 306
'My linguistic training has deceived and misguided me. The classical
method of learning languages with grammar books, dictionaries, and
translations, is a delusion . . . to find out Nature's secret, I need
to observe my nephew.'
Gouin watched the child and his book was the result of his observations.
This method of teaching can be varied, partly because Gouin's method
requires fluency in French and teachers who are reserved would rather
use the conversational material in books with pictures. They think it's
easier and just as effective, maybe more so. Still, Gouin had the
fundamental idea for the method.
It is good to see the same principles we have talked about for so long
finally written clearly in his book. For example, he writes, 'If a
person learns to speak French without learning to read it, like
children do, he will have no more trouble with pronouncing French words
than he does with English words. You wonder about spelling? You would
learn it the same way that French children learn it, the same way you
learned to spell in English, which is ten times more difficult. And
you'd learn it without losing your ability to pronounce the words
correctly. Besides, bad spelling can be corrected, but bad
pronunciation can't be. We have to choose between the two.' Gouin
writes about the possibility of children picking up another language,
perhaps even Chinese from a Chinese caregiver. His words remind me of a
child I knew who
pg 307
had a gift for learning languages. I was speaking in public about three
children, all three years old, from three different families where one
parent was English and one was German. I said that all three of these
children were equally fluent in both German and English and could fully
express themselves in either language. After this meeting, a man came
up to me and confirmed what I had said. He said his son had married a
German lady and they were missionaries in Bagdad. Their three-year-old
could speak three languages
fluently--English, German, and Arabic! The child will most likely
forget two of those languages, and I'm not arguing that babies should
learn foreign languages, but it does prove that learning a foreign
language shouldn't be an insurmountable challenge for any of us.
XXI.--Pictorial Art
Study
of Pictures
Training children in art should take two forms. A six-year old should
begin to express himself
creatively, and should begin learning to appreciate art. And he will be able
to appreciate before he has the skill to accurately express what's in
his mind or imagination. So it's sad when the only art children are
exposed to is colorful illustrations in their picture books or
Christmas music sheets. But some might say, 'Young children can't
appreciate real art. The only thing that will appeal to them is
something colorful and that shows something he likes. A bright picture
of a birthday party or
pg 308
a little girl's broken doll is what they like looking at. So, nature
has limited the sort of art that's suitable for children.' But, the
truth is, the minds of children are just like the minds of adults. They
get used to whatever they're around. If all children can appreciate is
what's popular and stereotyped, it's because that's all they've been
exposed to. Some nine year olds studied copies of six pictures by
Millet during a school term. At the end of the term, they were asked to
describe the picture they liked best. And they did, and they did a good
job. One little boy said, 'I like The
Sower the best. The sower is sowing seeds and the picture is
all dark except high on the right side where there's a man plowing a
field. While he's plowing, the sower is sowing. He has a bag in his
left hand and he's sowing with his right hand. He's wearing wooden
clogs. It's about six o'clock in the morning. You can see his head
better than his legs and body because it's against the light.'
A seven year old girl prefers the Angelus
and says, 'The picture is about people in the fields, a man and a
woman. There's a basket next to the woman with something in it and
there's a wheelbarrow behind her. The man has his hat off, it's in his
hands, and they're praying. You can tell that it's evening because the
wheelbarrow and the basket are loaded.'
Picture
Study Should be Regular
At age six, when children begin formal school lessons, this sort of
picture study shouldn't
pg 309
be left to chance. They should study one artist at a time, term by
term, and they should quietly study six reproductions of his work in
the term.
The children's quotes show that they learned about the pictures, but
that's not the most important thing they gain. We don't know how much
influence any artist might have on a child's sense of beauty, and his
ability to see the common sights around him as if he's seeing a
picture. He is enriched more than we'll ever know by looking at even
one picture closely. Contrary to common thought, children don't need a
lot of color in their picture studies. They can find color anywhere,
and can be satisfied for a while studying form and feeling in a picture
[that's less colorful.] And
for hanging on the schoolroom wall, the best art I know of are the
Fitzroy Pictures, especially The Four Seasons which has beautiful lines
and color, and poetic feeling. I also agree with John Ruskin that
children should be familiar with Ludwig
Richter's picture books for
children, such as Unser Vater (Our
Father)
and Sontag (Sunday). [An
illustration from Der Sontag in
Brilden,
or, Sunday in Pictures, can
be seen here
or here.]
I am including notes from a Picture Study lesson given to children aged
eight and nine by a teaching student at the House of Education. This
will show how this kind of lesson might be given.
Picture
Talk
Object:
1. To continue the term's study of Landseer.
2. To get the children more interested in Landseer's
works.
pg 310
3. To show how his knowledge of animals was important.
4. To help them to truly be able to read a picture.
5. To help them to be more observant and better focused.
Step 1. - Ask the children if they remember what their last
picture-talk was about, and which artist was famous for painting
animals. Tell them that Landseer was familiar with animals when he was
very young. He had dogs for pets, and because he loved them, he studied
them and their habits, so he was able to paint them.
Step 2. - Show them the picture 'Alexander and
Diogenes,' and ask them to find out all they can about it
themselves, and to try to figure out what idea the artist had in his
mind, and what
idea or ideas he meant his picture to convey to us.
Step 3. - After three or four minutes, take the picture away and see
what the children have noticed. Then ask them what the different dogs
suggest to them; the strength of the large, strong mastiff representing
Alexander; the dignity and stateliness of the bloodhounds behind him;
the look of the wise counselor on the face of the setter; the rather
contemptuous look of the rough-haired terrier in the tub. Ask the
children if they noticed anything in the picture that shows the time of
day: for example, the tools thrown down by the side of the workman's
basket suggesting lunch; and the bright sunshine on the dogs casting a
shadow on the tub shows that it must be about noon.
Step 4. - Let them read the title of the picture, and let them tell
anything they know about Alexander and Diogenes. Then tell them that
Alexander was a great conqueror who lived
pg 311
between 356-323 BC. He was famous for the battles he won against
Persia, India, and along the coast of the Mediterranean He was very
proud, strong, and boastful. Diogenes was a cynic philosopher. Explain
what a cynic is by telling them the legend of Alexander and Diogenes,
online here.
Let them figure out which dog represents Alexander and which represents
Diogenes.
Step 5. - Have the children take five minutes to draw the main lines of
the picture with a pencil and paper.
Original
Illustrations
I have mentioned illustrations drawn by the children. It might be
helpful to include notes from a lesson given by a student teacher from
the House of Education to show the kind of help a teacher can give with
this kind of work. But it is best to leave the children to themselves
with their drawing.
Object:
1. To help children make clear mental pictures from descriptions and
then to show that on paper.
2. To increase their imagination.
3. To help them learn about form and color.
4. To help them be more interested in the story of Beowulf by letting
them draw a picture from the book.
5. To help them develop their concept of an unknown creature [by
imagining and drawing Grendel].
Steps
Step 1. - To draw out what the children know of the poem Beowulf, and
of Beowulf the hero.
Step 2. - To fill in points they may have missed
pg 312
in their reading so far (up to the death of Grendel).
Step 3. - To read the description of how people dressed at that time,
and to read the account of Grendel's death (including three possible
pictures).
Step 4. - To draw out the mental images that the children have formed
from their reading, and then to re-read the passage.
Step 5. - To let them put their mental pictures on paper with brush and
paint.
Step 6. - To show them George Harrow's picture of Beowulf from Heroes of Chivalry and Romance.
Drawing
Lessons
But, someone might ask, 'What about actual drawing lessons? Do you use
oval blobs of paint made with the flat of the brush?' I think blobs can
help give a sense of freedom with color. But, other than that, blobs
allow a child to produce something like a flower that looks good, but
that he hasn't really learned to draw. And he can produce such a
picture without ever feeling anything for the flower. And feeling for a
subject is the very soul of art. Giving a child tricks to make a
picture that looks impressive damages his delicate sensitivity to
approaching art.
John Ruskin said, 'If, while chatting with a friend, your eye merely
rests on a rough piece of a branch that looks curious, then, no matter
how unconsciously the eye rests, even after the conversation has been
long forgotten and the specific memory of the branch is forgotten, yet
forever afterwards, your eye will always take a certain
pg 313
joy in that kind of branch that it hadn't before. It will be such a
slight pleasure and such a delicate trace of feeling that you will be
totally unaware of its power. Yet no amount of reasoning can destroy
it, and it will become a permanent part of who you are.'
And that's just what we want to give children when we teach them to
draw. We want to make their eye rest, not unconsciously, but
consciously, on some beautiful object that will leave a delightful
image in their minds for the rest of their lives. Even children as
young as 6 or 7 can draw budding twigs of oak, ash, beech or larch
trees with such accuracy of color, tone and line that their crude
little drawings are beautiful to see.
Children
Have Art in Them
Just like lots of other things in children, we must have faith that art
is there, or else we'll never find it. It's like a delicate Ariel that
we can set free from bondage. So we set a twig or flower in front of a
child and let him deal with it in his own way. He'll figure out how to
get the form and color he wants. Our help should be limited to
technical
matters, like showing him how to mix colors. We don't want to interfere
with the child's freedom, or inhibit the expression of the art that's
inside him, so we need to be careful not to offer crutches like guiding
lines and points. Also, we should make sure children have the easiest
medium to work with--paint brushes or charcoal, not black lead pencils.
Avoid cheap boxes of paint. Children are worth the best we can offer. A
half dozen tubes of really good watercolors will last a long time and
will produce quality color that will satisfy the little artists' eyes.
Modeling
With Clay
As long as we're discussing art,
pg 314
we might as well talk about clay modeling. Nice little birds nests and
baskets of eggs don't help develop artistic skill and get boring. The
main thing a teacher should do is to show the child how to prepare the
clay to get rid of air bubbles, and give him the idea of making a
platform for his work so that his creations will look more artistic
from the beginning. Then, put in front of him an apple, or banana, or
walnut. Instead of letting him take a lump of clay and squeezing it
into shape, have him build up the shape he wants morsel by morsel. His
own creativity will pick up on the pit in the apple, or the crease in a
child's shoe--all the little individual differences that make art
unique.
Piano
and Singing
As I near the end of this section on subjects, I know that important
subjects have had to be left out, and the subjects that are included
haven't been covered as thoroughly as they could have been.
For instance, some subjects that have special educational value, like
music, I haven't even mentioned, partly because of space limitations,
and partly because, if a mother doesn't have some natural sense of art
within her, nothing I can say as an outsider can produce in her what
she needs in order to convey a feeling for art in her child. If
possible, children should learn from real artists who love what they
do. It's no good for a child's foundation for future art appreciation
to be laid by mechanical teachers who aren't qualified and who can't
kindle an enthusiasm for art. As far as singing, I'd like to mention
the wonderful educational results from the Sol-fa
method.
pg 315
With the Sol-fa method, children learn what seems like a magical way to
make hand signs for sounds. They are then able to read music, and write
notes for, or make hand signs for, passages that are sung to them.
Thus, the ear and the voice are cultivated at the same time.
[John?] Curwen's book Child Pianist uses the same method,
worked out with great detail. If a child learns music theory as he
learns to make music, he won't be bored and tired of practicing.
Handicrafts
and Drills
There's not enough space to do more than mention two more important
subjects: handicrafts and drill. But both should be a daily part of a
child's life. For physical training, nothing is better than Swedish Drill,
developed by Per Henrik Ling. A few of the exercises are well within
the ability of young children. Dancing and various musical drills
encourage graceful movement and are fun for children, even if they
don't provide scientific training.
The best handicrafts for children under nine seem to be caning chairs,
carton work, making baskets, weaving small rugs, Japanese curtains [?], carving cork, sewing pretty
samplers, easy needlework, knitting with big needles and coarse
threads, etc. The important things to keep in mind about children's
crafts are that:
a. they shouldn't waste their
time making useless things like paper mats, or models constructed from
softened peas and toothpicks.
b. they should receive
patient, thorough instruction so they know how to do the craft
correctly.
c. sloppy work should
pg 316
not be allowed.
d. they should be given work
well within the ability of their age range so that they are able to do
it well and not sloppily.
In this short summary of the subjects a child should learn, I hope I
have said enough to impress upon the mother how serious a matter her
children's education is. Then she will think twice before allowing
indiscriminate text books to be given to her children, and she won't
trust unqualified people to test their own methods on her children.
Paraphrased by L. N. Laurio
Please direct any comments or questions to me by emailing me at cmseries-owner at yahoogroups dot com.
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