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Study Guide for Plutarch's Life of Alexander

Text taken from Thomas North and/or John Dryden
Study Guide by Anne White

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Alexander III of Macedon

(356-323 B.C.)

Part I; Part II is here

Another time also when he was in Spain, reading the history of Alexander's acts, when he had read it, he was sorrowful a good while after, and then burst out in weeping. His friends, seeing that, marvelled what should be the cause of his sorrow. "Do ye not think," said he, "that I have good cause to be heavy, when King Alexander being no older than myself is now, had in old time won so many nations and countries: and that I hitherunto have done nothing worthy of myself?"(Plutarch's Life of Julius Caesar)

Alexander the Great may be the best known, and the most romanticized, of Plutarch's biographical subjects. His story has been examined and debated for over two thousand years, by everyone from Oxford scholars to schoolchildren making stop-motion videos. Although Alexander lived only a few hundred years before this account was written, and historians had already described his life in detail, Plutarch still had to deal with unconfirmed stories and questionable "facts," from the legends around Alexander's birth to his mysterious death. However, Plutarch's aims were slightly different: he was concerned with character, moral choices, and problems of leadership and government. Does power always corrupt? Should kings live in safety and luxury, or should they fight on the front lines? What motivates greatness? (What is greatness?)

Who was Alexander?

Alexander was born into the Macedonian royal family in 356 B.C. For many years, the dominant political power in Europe and the Middle East had been the Persian empire; but Persia's strength had weakened, and its subjects were now becoming rebellious. Alexander's father, Philip II of Macedon, became king soon after his son was born, and he was credited with reforming and strengthening the army (using the famous phalanx formation). He planned to combine Macedon's military power with that of the Greek city-states, and to attack Persia (Lesson Two).

Philip's assassination in 336 left that ambition unfulfilled. However, his son Alexander spent the next thirteen years conquering a previously undreamed-of share of the world.

Is it Macedon or Macedonia? Were the Macedonians Greeks?

The names are used interchangeably. Macedonia, or Macedon, was a kingdom in the northeastern part of mainland Greece. The Macedonians were Greek in many respects, such as religious beliefs; but they valued their distinct heritage and identity.

What is meant by "barbarous?"

The word "barbarous" meant "foreign" or "not Greek." It carried overtones of "strange," but it did not imply "savage or cruel."

People in this Story

Alexander's Teachers

Aristotle: "The Father of Western Philosophy" was hired by King Philip to teach Alexander (and other young men) subjects such as natural philosophy (science) and rhetoric.

Leonidas of Epirus: Alexander's schoolmaster and a relative of his mother Olympias.

Lysimachus of Acarnania: Alexander's second-place tutor, who suggested the nicknames "Phoenix" for himself, "Achilles" for Alexander, and "Peleus" for Philip.

Anaxarchus: one of the philosophers called to counsel Alexander during his grief after killing Cleitus (Lesson Seventeen).

Alexander's Military Colleagues

Nearchus/Nearchos: Alexander's admiral and official explorer.

Parmenion/Parmenio: Philip's chief lieutenant, and later a general to Alexander. His eldest son was Philotas, a cavalry commander.

Perdiccas: one of Alexander's generals, later the head of the Imperial Army, and regent during the reign of Alexander's half-brother Arrhidaeus (see note below).

Antipater was born in 397 B.C. He appears in Lesson Three as "one of Alexander's chiefest servants." Antipater was an advisor and friend to Alexander, and to Alexander's mother Olympias, during the early years of his reign, and he acted as regent (substitute ruler) when Alexander was in Persia and India. His friendship with Alexander gradually deteriorated, due to mistrust and jealousy.

Antipater's son Cassander is not mentioned until Lesson Twenty-Three. He lived from about 350-297 B.C., and later became king of Macedon. As a boy, he had been a student of Aristotle along with Alexander.

Plutarch also mentions another of Antipater's sons, Iolaus, who was suspected of poisoning Alexander.

Antigonus Monopthalmus (or "Antigonus with One Eye"): Those who have read the Life of Demetrius will remember Antigonus, the father of Demetrius and one of Alexander's generals.

Seleucus I Nicator was a general in Alexander's army who eventually ruled much of the Middle East. He is, however, barely mentioned in this story. Ptolemy I Soter, another general, became ruler of Egypt after Alexander's death. He is also not mentioned much here.

The Wives and Children of Alexander

Alexander had a complicated list of marriages and other relationships.

The most important to know are his wives Statira (also spelled Stateira) and Roxane (also Roxana or Rhoxane). A third wife was named Parysatis. Alexander is believed to have been the father of at least two sons, including Alexander IV who was born to Roxane after his death.

Other People

Cleopatra Eurydice was a stepmother to Alexander.

Arrhidaeus: Alexander's half-brother became King Philip Arrhidaeus III of Macedon in 323 B.C. According to historians, he was not considered fully capable of ruling, possibly due to a childhood injury. He was put to death by Alexander's mother Olympias.

Hephaestion: one of Alexander's closest friends. Some thought that Alexander's grief over Hephaestion's death hastened his own end.

Craterus: another of Alexander's generals

Darius III: king of Persia at the time

Harpalus: Those who have read the Life of Demosthenes will remember Alexander's friend Harpalus, whose visit to Athens (while escaping Alexander's anger) caused trouble for Demosthenes. (Those events are mentioned briefly here in Lesson Fifteen.)

How P.N.E.U. teachers taught Alexander

There are a few mentions of the Life of Alexander in Charlotte Mason's writings and in early Parents' Review articles. Interestingly, it appears under the subjects of both Narration/Language and History, but not Citizenship (its place in later P.N.E.U. programmes).

Two lesson plans for passages in Alexander appear in Appendix V of School Education, "How Oral Lessons are Used." The first lesson is designed to take twenty minutes, and the second, thirty; the first says that it is intended for students with an average age of ten, and the other is for students aged eight or nine (below the usual age for Plutarch in the later programmes).

The first lesson plan (included below) is the simplest. Note Step 2, which sounds like Charlotte Mason's Bible lessons as described in Home Education, giving students an overview of the story before reading the whole thing. Elsewhere, we are directed to read a passage without much preamble and let the students take from it what they can, rather than kill the story with too much talk. However, telling the story-before-the-story is a way to unlock difficult passages, or those that include significant events such as famous battles.

Step 1. Connect with the last lesson by questioning the children. They read last time stories illustrating Alexander's graciousness and tact.
Step 2. Tell the children shortly the substance of what I am going to read to them, letting them find any places mentioned, in their maps.
Step 3. Read to the children about three pages, dealing with the luxury of the Macedonians, Alexander's march to Bactria, and the death of Darius. Read this slowly and distinctly, and "into" the children as much as possible.
Step 4. Ask the children in turn to narrate, each narrating a part of what was read.

The second lesson is longer, but as it is also included in School Education, I will not repeat it here. This was intended as a first lesson on Alexander, "a fresh hero." After discussing a few details about place and time, the class read and narrated the story of Alexander's taming of Bucephalus. They were asked to list "the qualities which go to make a hero," and looked for examples of those qualities in the story. The teacher pointed out that Alexander himself admired heroic qualities (seen in his admiration for The Iliad), and she stressed the impact of Alexander's life on the world.

Charlotte Mason notes, "These [oral] lessons are always expansions or illustrations or summaries of some part of the scholars' current book-work." In other words, they were not written to show how every lesson should be studied, including Plutarch; but as reminders that we teach with "things and ideas," and as suggestions of ways that books written for adults may be used with young students, without either patronizing them or confusing them with irrelevancies.

Maps and Alexander's World

Because Alexander's story covers such a broad range of places, it is helpful to refer to maps in a historical atlas or the online equivalent. This study contains notes under the heading "On the Map."

Top Vocabulary Terms in Alexander

If you recognize these words, you are well on your way to mastering the vocabulary of this story. (They will not be noted in the lessons.)

1.       acquaint: This can mean either "to become used to, familiar with" or "to share information."

2.       buckler: shield, in Dryden's translation. North prefers target.

3.       choler: anger, temper

4.       divers: several, various

5.       familiars: close friends

6.       footmen: foot soldiers, infantry, sometimes called "foot." Horsemen are the cavalry, or simply "horse."

7.       lance, javelin, dart: a long pointed weapon; spear

8.       meet: proper, just. When Philip said his son should have a kingdom that was "meet" for him, he meant "large enough, sufficient."

9.       physic: medicine, both the science and the potion. An expert in medicine is a physician.

10.    soothsayer: someone who can predict the future. Soothsayers often specialized in the interpretation of omens, such as an owl landing on one's roof.

11.    spoil or spoils: loot, treasure, plunder; especially from a defeated enemy. Most of these words can be used either as nouns ("they took the loot") or verbs ("they spoiled the camp").

12.    stay: Often used to mean delay, detain, stop. It can also be used in the more familiar sense of "remain" (stay here).

13.    strange: usually means "foreign," but sometimes it just means "strange." Soldiers that are strangers are often foreign mercenaries (soldiers employed by any army that will pay them).

Lesson One

Introduction

What do your students know about Alexander the Great? Do they have any ideas about how he earned that title?

In two sample lessons included in Charlotte Mason's book School Education (see the introductory notes for this study), an unnamed teacher describes Alexander's "wisdom, valour, and self-reliance," and his "love of simplicity, generosity, and kindness to his men." She suggests that Alexander had a gift of prudence, and that he knew how to put important things first. As you read this Life, you may agree that those traits accurately describe Alexander; or you may argue that his values changed during his lifetime. (Did Alexander retain his love of simplicity, or was it destroyed when he began to dress like a Persian?) Or you may disagree with them completely. (Was Alexander truly wise and great, or not?)

Vocabulary

Olympic games: a festival held every fourth year, including sports competitions, music, and religious rituals

had brought him a son: had given birth to a son

invincible: unconquerable

stature and personage: personal appearance

for that he would be drawn…: Alexander would allow no other artist to draw him

counterfeit: copy

hasty: hot-tempered

chaste: moderate in behaviour (such as not overeating)

essay: attempt

playing at the staff: fighting with staffs or sticks (like Robin Hood)

ought worth: worth anything

churlish: mean-spirited, rude

yerk: jerk, kick

what wilt thou forfeit for thy folly: What are you willing to bet?

jeopardize: bet, wager

voice a-good: Dryden, "in a commanding voice"

was lighted from: alighted from, got down from

People

Parmenion, Queen Olympias: see introductory notes

Lysippus (Lysippos), Apelles: artists who sculpted and painted Alexander

Leonidas, Lysimachus: Alexander's tutors (see introductory notes)

Historic Occasions

357 B.C.: Marriage of Olympias and Philip (Alexander's parents)

356 B.C.: Birth of Alexander

346 B.C.: Alexander tamed Bucephalus

On the Map

On a map of Europe and Asia, preferably one representing the fourth century B.C., locate Macedon, Greece, and the Persian Empire.

Potidaea: a city in northern Greece

Illyria (Illyrians): a region of the Balkan Peninsula

Asia (or Asia Minor): the region of the Anatolian Peninsula (part of modern-day Turkey)

Acarnania: a region of west-central Greece

Reading

Part One

[omission: omens pertaining to Alexander's birth]

Shortly after King Philip had won the city of Potidaea, three messengers came to him the same day that brought him great news. The first was that Parmenion had won a notable battle of the Illyrians: the second, that his horse had won the course at the Olympic games: and the third, that his wife had brought him a son called Alexander. Philip being marvellous glad to hear these news, the soothsayers did make his joy yet greater: assuring him that his son which was born with three victories all together should be invincible.

Now for his stature and personage, the statues and images made of him by Lysippus do best declare it, for that he would be drawn of no man but him only. Divers of his successors and friends did afterwards counterfeit his image, but that excellent workman Lysippus only, of all other the chiefest, hath perfectly drawn and resembled Alexander's manner of holding his neck, somewhat hanging down towards the left side, and also the sweet look and cast of his eyes. But when Apelles painted Alexander, holding lightning in his hand, he did not show his fresh colour, but made him somewhat [darker] than his face indeed was: for naturally he had a very fair white colour mingled also with red, which chiefly appeared in his face and in his breast.

[omission]

This natural heat that Alexander had, made him (as it appeareth) to be given to drink, and to be hasty. Even from his childhood they saw that he was given to be chaste [omission]. But on the other side, the ambition and desire he had of honour, showed a certain greatness of mind and noble courage, passing his years. For he was not (as his father Philip) desirous of all kind of glory: who took care to have the victories of his racing chariots at the Olympic games engraved on his coin. For when he [Alexander] was asked one day (because he was swift of foot) whether he would essay to run for victory at the Olympic games: "I could be content," said he, "if I might run with kings." And yet to speak generally, he misliked all such contention for games. For it seemeth that he utterly misliked all wrestling and other exercise for prize, where men did use all their strength: but otherwise he himself made certain festival days and games of prize, for common stage-players, musicians, and singers, and for the very poets also. He delighted also in hunting of divers kinds of beasts, and playing at the staff.

Part Two

Ambassadors being sent on a time from the king of Persia, whilst his father was in some journey out of his realm: Alexander, familiarly entertaining of them, so won them with his courteous entertainment (for he used no childish questions unto them, nor asked them trifling matters, but what distance it was from one place to another, and which way they went into the high countries of Asia, and of the king of Persia himself, how he was towards his enemies, and what power he had), that they were struck with admiration of him, and looked upon the ability so much famed of Philip to be nothing in comparison with the forwardness and high purpose that appeared thus early in his son.

For when they brought him news that his father had taken some famous city, or had won some great battle, he was nothing glad to hear it, but would say to his playfellows: "Sirs, my father will have all, I shall have nothing left me to conquer with you, that shall be ought worth." For being more bent upon action and glory than either upon pleasure or riches, he esteemed all that he should receive from his father as a diminution and prevention of his own future achievements; and would have chosen rather to succeed to a kingdom involved in troubles and wars, which would have afforded him frequent exercise of his courage, and a large field of honour, than to one already flourishing and settled, where his inheritance would be an inactive life, and the mere enjoyment of wealth and luxury.

He had divers men appointed him (as it is to be supposed) to bring him up: as schoolmasters, governors, and grooms of his chamber to attend upon him: and among those, Leonidas was the chiefest man that had the government and charge of him, a man of a severe disposition, and a kinsman also unto Queen Olympias. He misliked to be called a master or tutor, though it be an office of good charge; whereupon the others called him Alexander's governor, because he was a noble man, and allied to the prince. But he that bore the name of his schoolmaster was Lysimachus, an Acarnanian born, who had no other manner of civility in him saving that he called himself "Phoenix," Alexander "Achilles," and Philip "Peleus"; and, therefore, he was well thought of, and was the second person next unto Leonidas.

Part Three

At what time Philonicus the Thessalian had brought Bucephalus the horse to sell unto King Philip, asking thirteen talents, they went into the field to ride him. The horse was found so rough and churlish that the riders said he would never do service, for he would let no man get up on his back, nor abide any of the gentlemen's voices about King Philip; but would yerk out at them. Thereupon, Philip being afraid, commanded them to carry him away as a wild beast, and altogether unprofitable: the which they would have done, had not Alexander that stood by said, "Gods, what a horse do they turn away, for lack of skill and heart to handle him." Philip heard what he said but held his peace. Alexander, oft repeating his words, seemed to be sorry that they should send back the horse again. "Why," said Philip, "dost thou control them that have more experience than thou, and that know better than thou how to handle a horse?" Alexander answered, "And yet methinks I should handle him better than all they have done." "But if thou canst not, no more than they," replied Philip: "what wilt thou forfeit for thy folly?" "I am content," (quoth Alexander) "to jeopardize the price of the horse." Every man laughed to hear his answer, and the wager was laid between them. Then ran Alexander to the horse and took him by the bridle and turned him towards the sun. It seemed that he had marked (as I suppose) how mad the horse was to see his own shadow, which was ever before him in his eye, as he stirred to and fro. Then Alexander speaking gently to the horse, and clapping him on the back with his hand, till he had left his fury and snorting: softly let fall his cloak from him, and lightly leaping on his back, got up without any danger, and holding the reins of the bridle hard, without striking or stirring the horse, made him to be gentle enough. Then when he saw that the fury of the horse was past, and that he began to gallop, he put him to his full career, and laid on spurs and voice a-good. Philip at the first with fear beholding his son's agility, lest he should take some hurt, said never a word: but when he saw him readily turn the horse at the end of his career, in a bravery for that he had done, all the lookers on gave a shout for joy. The father, on the other side (as they say), fell a-weeping for joy. And when Alexander was lighted from the horse, he said unto him, kissing his head: "O son, thou must needs have a realm that is meet for thee, for Macedon will not hold thee."

After this, considering Alexander to be of a temper easy to be led to his duty by reason, but by no means to be compelled, Philip always endeavoured to persuade rather than to command or to force him to anything.

Narration and Discussion

Retell the story of Alexander and Bucephalus. Why do you think this story has been told so often? What does it say about Alexander's character, even as a boy?

"He desired no riches nor pleasure, but wars and battles." Should we admire Alexander's determination to make his country great?

For older students and further thought: How does the last sentence compare Philip's education of Alexander to Alexander's handling of the horse? Is this a useful philosophy for those who lead or train others?

Creative narration #1: Have a reporter interview young Alexander (or some of the people around him). What is he most proud of? What are his goals?

Creative narration #2: Students interested in art may want to discuss the problems of portraiture. How do you know when someone has been captured "accurately" with paints, or with a camera? (Older students who have read Daughter of Time by Josephine Tey might consider the copies of famous portraits that the main character examines, and the conclusions he comes to.)

He pushed the portrait at her.

What did she think of it? If that man were her patient what would be her verdict?

‘Liver,' she said crisply, and bore away the tray in heel-tapping protest, all starch and blonde curls.

(Daughter of Time)

Lesson Two

Introduction

As Alexander grew up, he received his schooling, put down a rebellion, and suddenly became king of Macedon. He seemed to have had the perfect education and training, but he was still very young. Was he prepared to handle this new role?

Vocabulary

affiance: trust

honourable stipend: generous pay

professed to reserve for oral communication to the initiated: taught only to advanced students

ambitious humour: desire to be greater than all others

published and not published: Aristotle explained that yes, he had published the metaphysical teaching which had been only for the privileged; but there was no danger in making that knowledge public, because most people wouldn't understand it anyway.

memoranda: reminders; something to refresh one's knowledge

corrected: edited

casket copy: see Lesson Nine for an explanation of the "casket"

allured: tempted, persuaded

People

Aristotle, Harpalus, etc.: see introductory notes

Pausanius of Orestis: one of Philip's bodyguards. The story of his personal grudge has been told by other historians, but it cannot be repeated here. Briefly, he blamed Philip for not avenging an insult that he had received. The mystery around the murder seems to be who it was that persuaded Pausanias to carry it out; even Alexander was not above suspicion.

Historic Occasions

343 B.C.: Aristotle became Alexander's teacher

339 B.C.: Philip besieged Byzantium

338 B.C.: Battle of Chaeronea

Summer, 336 B.C.: Darius III became king of Persia

October, 336 B.C.: Alexander became king of Macedon

On the Map

Stagira: a Greek city, known as the birthplace of Aristotle

Mieza: a village in Macedonia

Byzantium (Byzantines): the city (now in Turkey) that became Constantinople and later Istanbul

Medarians: a Thracian tribe

Chaeronea: a town in Boeotia, Greece

Thebes (Thebans): a city in Boeotia

Reading

Part One

Now Philip put no great affiance in the schoolmasters of music and humanity for the instruction and education of his son whom he had appointed to teach him; but he thought rather that he needed men of greater learning than their capacities would reach unto; and that as Sophocles sayeth,

       He needed many reins, and many bits at once. [Dryden: "the bridle and the rudder too"]

He sent for Aristotle (the greatest philosopher in his time, and best learned) to teach his son, unto whom he gave honourable stipend. For he repeopled his native city Stagira, which he had caused to be demolished a little before, and restored all the citizens, who were in exile or slavery, to their habitations.

As a place for the pursuit of their studies and exercise, he assigned the Temple of the Nymphs, near Mieza, where, to this very day, they show you Aristotle's stone seats, and the shady walks which he was wont to frequent.

It is thought that Alexander did not only learn of Aristotle moral philosophy and humanity, but also that he heard of him something of those more abstruse and profound theories which these philosophers, by the very names they gave them, professed to reserve for oral communication to the initiated, or else those which are kept from common knowledge: which sciences they did not commonly teach. For when Alexander was in Asia, hearing that Aristotle had put out certain books of that matter, he wrote to him, using very plain language to him in behalf of philosophy, the following letter:

"Alexander unto Aristotle, greeting: Thou hast not done well to put forth your books of oral doctrine: for wherein shall we excel others, if those things which thou hast secretly taught us, be made common to all? I do wish thee to understand that I had rather excel others in excellency of knowledge, than in greatness of power. Farewell."

Whereunto Aristotle, to pacify this his ambitious humour, wrote unto him again that these books were both published, and not published. For to say truly, his books on metaphysics are written in a style which makes them useless for ordinary teaching, and instructive only in the way of memoranda, for those who have already been conversant in that sort of learning.

Doubtless also it was to Aristotle that he owed the inclination he had, not to the theory only, but likewise to the practice of the art of medicine. For when any of his friends were sick, he would often prescribe them their course of diet, and medicines proper to their disease, as we may find in his epistles. He was naturally a great lover of all kinds of learning and reading; and Onesicritus informs us that he constantly laid Homer's Iliad, according to the copy corrected by Aristotle, called the "casket copy," with his dagger under his pillow, declaring that he esteemed it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge. And [later in his life], when he was in the high countries of Asia, where he could not readily come by other books, he wrote unto Harpalus to send them to him. (Harpalus sent him the histories of Philistus, with divers tragedies of Euripides, Sophocles, and Aeschylus, and certain hymns of Telestus and Philoxenus.)

Alexander did reverence Aristotle at the first, as his father, and so he termed him: because from his natural father he had life, but from him [Aristotle] the knowledge to live. But afterwards he suspected him somewhat, yet he did him no hurt, neither was he so friendly to him as he had been: whereby men perceived that he did not bear him the goodwill he was wont to do. This notwithstanding, he left not that zeal and desire he had to the study of philosophy, which he had learned from his youth, and still continued.

[short omission]

Part Two

When King Philip made war with the Byzantines, Alexander, being but sixteen years old, was left as his lieutenant in Macedon, with the custody and charge of his great seal. Not to sit idle, he subdued the Medarians which had rebelled against him; and having won their city by assault, he drove out the barbarous people, and made a colony of it of sundry nations, and called it Alexandropolis, to say, "the city of Alexander."

He was with his father at the Battle of Chaeronea against the Grecians, where it was reported that it was he that gave charge first of all upon the holy band of the Thebans. Furthermore, there was an old oak seen in my time, which the countrymen commonly call Alexander's Oak, because his tent or pavilion was fastened to it. And not far off are to be seen the graves of the Macedonians who fell in that battle.

 For these causes, his father Philip loved him very dearly, and was glad to hear the Macedonians call Alexander king, and himself their captain [Dryden: general]. Howbeit the troubles that fell out in his court afterwards, by reason of Philip's new marriages and loves, bred great quarrel and strife amongst the women: for the mischief of dissension and jealousy of women doth separate the hearts of kings one from another. The chiefest cause was the sharpness of [Queen] Olympias, who, being a jealous woman, fretting, and of a revenging mind, did incense Alexander against his father.

[Omission: events and intrigue involving King Philip, his new second wife Cleopatra, his other son Arrhidaeus, and a proposed royal wedding between Arrhidaeus and a Carian princess. When Alexander became involved in this tangle, Philip punished him by banishing several of his friends.]

Shortly after, Pausanias, [having a personal grudge against Philip], watched for his opportunity and murdered him. Of this murder, most men accused Olympias, who (as it is reported) allured this young man, having just cause of anger, to kill him. There was some sort of suspicion attached even to Alexander himself [short omission]. However, he took care to find out and punish the accomplices of the conspiracy severely; and [he] was very angry with Olympias for treating Cleopatra inhumanely in his absence.

Narration and Discussion

How did Philip recognize and encourage his son's special gifts?

How was Alexander able to accomplish so much before the age of twenty? (You may want to look up 1 Timothy 4:12.)

For older students: If you have read The Iliad, do you agree with Alexander's wholehearted admiration of that book? Do you have a book that has become your lifelong guide?

Lesson Three

Introduction

How should a young, ambitious king make the right impression on his country's friends and enemies? In Part One of this lesson, Alexander made a violent choice, but he wondered later if he had gone too far.

Part Two is a short and much lighter story which should provoke some discussion about material needs and desires.

Vocabulary

barbarous: see introductory notes

insolency: unfriendly attitude, rudeness

timorous: timid, cowardly

magnanimity: this usually means generosity of spirit; but here it means acting unwaveringly. Plutarch adds the phrase "to make them know he was a man."

truckle: bow down

Then did Alexander leave the Macedonians…: He allowed his soldiers to attack without restraint. [Dryden: He presently applied himself to make them feel the last extremities of war.]

made a sally: rushed out to attack

an attempt to gratify the hostility of his confederates: his excuse was that he needed to gain the confidence of the Phocians and Plataeans

those that had dissuaded…: those who had attempted to end the rebellion

mien and gait: manner and way of walking

celebration of the Mysteries: a time of religious observance

imputed: blamed

in his wine: when he was drunk

Bacchus: the Greek god of wine

People

Demosthenes: an orator in Athens who had spoken against Philip's aggression (see Plutarch's Life of Demosthenes)

Philotas and Antipater: see introductory notes

Pindar: a poet from Thebes

Diogenes of Sinope: a founder of Cynic philosophy (forerunner of Stoicism)

Historic Occasions

September, 335 B.C.: Fall of Thebes

On the Map

Alexander's army marched south to Thebes and Corinth.

Corinth: the city-state located on the strip of land (isthmus) which divides Greece into its northern and southern parts

Reading

Part One

So he came to be king of Macedon at twenty years of age, and found his realm greatly envied and hated of dangerous enemies, and every way full of danger. For the barbarous nations that were near neighbours unto Macedon were impatient of being governed by any but their own native princes. Neither had Philip time enough to bridle and pacify Greece, which he had conquered by force of arms: but having a little altered the governments, he had through his insolency left them all in great trouble and ready to rebel, for that they had not long been acquainted to obey.

It seemed to the Macedonians a very critical time; and some would have persuaded Alexander to give up all thought of retaining the Grecians in subjection by force of arms, and rather to apply himself to win back by gentle means the barbarous people that had rebelled against him, and wisely to remedy these new stirs. But he rejected this counsel as weak and timorous, and looked upon it to be more prudent to secure himself by resolution and magnanimity than by seeming to truckle to any, to encourage all to trample on him.

Thereupon, he straight quenched all the rebellion of the barbarous people, invading them suddenly with his army, by the river Danube, where in a great battle he overthrew Syrmus, king of the Triballians. Furthermore, having intelligence that the Thebans had revolted, and that the Athenians also were confederate with them: to make them know that he was a man, he marched with his army through the pass of Thermopylae, saying that to Demosthenes, who had called him "a child" while he was in Illyria and in the country of the Triballians, and "a youth" when he was in Thessaly, he would appear "a man" before the walls of Athens.

 When he came with his army unto the gates of Thebes, he was willing to give those of the city occasion to repent themselves: and therefore demanded only Phoenix and Prothytes, authors of the rebellion. Furthermore, he proclaimed, by trumpet, pardon and safety unto all them that would yield unto him. The Thebans, on the other side, demanded of him Philotas and Antipater, two of his chiefest servants, and made the crier proclaim in the city that all such as would defend the liberty of Greece should join with them. Then did Alexander leave the Macedonians at liberty to make war with all cruelty.

The Thebans indeed defended themselves with a zeal and courage beyond their strength, being much outnumbered by their enemies. And on the other side also, when the garrison of the Macedonians, which were within the citadel, made a sally upon them and gave them charge in the rearward: then they, being environed of all sides, were slain in manner every one of them, their city taken, destroyed, and razed even to the hard ground. This he did, specially to make all the rest of the people of Greece afraid by example of this great calamity and misery of the Thebans, to the end that none of them should dare from thenceforth once to rise against him. He would cloak this cruelty of his under an attempt to gratify the hostility of his confederates. So that, except the priests, and some few who had heretofore been the friends and connections of the Macedonians, the family of the poet Pindar, and those who were known to have opposed the public vote for the war, all the rest, to the number of thirty thousand, were publicly sold for slaves; and it is computed that upwards of six thousand were put to the sword.

Part Two (optional)

Among the other calamities that befell the city, it happened that some Thracian soldiers, having broken into the house of a matron of high character and repute named Timoclea; their captain, after he had used violence with her [omission], asked her if she knew of any money concealed; to which she readily answered she did, and bade him follow her into a garden, where she showed him a well into which, she told him, upon the taking of the city, she had thrown what she had of most value. The greedy Thracian presently stooping down to view the place where he thought the treasure lay, she came behind him and pushed him into the well, and then flung great stones in upon him, till she had killed him.

After which, when the solders led her away bound to Alexander, her very mien and gait showed her to be a woman of dignity, and of a mind no less elevated, not betraying the least sign of fear or astonishment. And when the king asked her who she was, "I am," said she, "the sister of Theagenes, who fought in the Battle of Chaeronea with your father Philip and fell there in command for the liberty of Greece." Alexander was so surprised, both at what she had done and what she said, that he could not choose but give her and her children their freedom to go whither they pleased.

Part Three

After this he received the Athenians into favour, although they had shown themselves so much concerned at the calamity of Thebes that out of sorrow they omitted the celebration of the Mysteries, and entertained those who escaped with all possible humanity. Whether it were, like the lion, that his passion was now satisfied, or that, after an example of extreme cruelty, he had a mind to appear merciful, it happened well for the Athenians; for he not only forgave them all past offences, but did also counsel them to look wisely to their doings, for their city one day should command all Greece, if he chanced to die.

Certain it is, too, that in aftertime he often repented of his severity to the Thebans, and his remorse had such influence on his temper as to make him ever after less rigorous to all others. He imputed also the murder of Cleitus, which he committed in his wine [Lesson Seventeen], and the unwillingness of the Macedonians to follow him against the Indians [Lesson Twenty], by which his enterprise and glory was left imperfect, to the wrath and vengeance of Bacchus, the protector of Thebes. And it was observed that whatsoever any Theban, who had the good fortune to survive this victory, asked of him, he was sure to grant without the least difficulty.

Part Four

Soon after, the Grecians, being assembled at the Isthmus, declared their resolution of joining with Alexander in the war against the Persians, and proclaimed him their general. While he stayed here, many public ministers and philosophers came from all parts to visit him and congratulated him on his election. He [expected] that Diogenes of Sinope (who dwelt at Corinth) would likewise come as the rest had done: but when he saw he made no reckoning of him, and that he kept still in the suburbs of Corinth, at a place called the Cranium, he went himself unto him, and found him laid all along in the sun.

When Diogenes saw so many coming towards him, he sat up a little, and looked full upon Alexander. Alexander courteously spoke unto him, and asked him if he lacked anything. "Yea," said he, "that I do: that thou stand out of my sun a little."

Alexander was so well pleased with this answer, and marvelled so much at the great boldness of this man, to see how small account he made of him: that when he went his way from him, Alexander's familiars laughing at Diogenes and mocking him, he told them, "Masters, say what you [will], truly if I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes."

[omitted material between lessons]

Narration and Discussion

Alexander was advised to introduce himself as a friendly, gentle ruler of the cities his father had conquered. Why did he reject this advice?

Why did Alexander say that he would choose to be Diogenes?

Older students: Part One of this lesson raises many questions about military aggression, including the treatment of civilians during wars. Could Alexander's destruction of Thebes be justified? If so, why did he later regret his actions?

Creative narration: Dramatize any part of this lesson.

Lesson Four

Introduction

In this lesson, Alexander fought successfully to cross the Granicus River and enter Persian territory. King Darius was not there himself; perhaps he thought it would be an easy matter for his troops (made up largely of mercenary soldiers) to push the Macedonians back.

Vocabulary

Delphi, to consult Apollo: the temple at Delphi contained the Oracle, believed to be a source of supernatural guidance. The prophecies were spoken through a woman called "the priestess" or "the nun."

importunity: persistence

prodigies: supernatural occurrences

presaging: foretelling

liberality: generosity

Diana (in Greek, Artemis): the goddess of the hunt and the moon

libations: offerings of wine

Achilles, Paris: characters in Homer's Iliad

sepulcher: tomb

to tarry Alexander…: to keep the Macedonians from crossing the river

phalanx: the classic Macedonian battle formation

People

Aristander: a soothsayer

Cleitus (Cleitus): "Cleitus the Black" saved Alexander's life in this battle, but was killed by him six years later during a drunken quarrel

Historic Occasions

June, 334 B.C.: Battle of the Granicus River

334 B.C.: The city of Sardis surrendered to Alexander

On the Map

After visiting Delphi, Alexander returned to Macedonia, gathered his forces, and headed east and then south, around the Aegean Sea, crossed the Strait of Hellespont (also called the Bosphorus); and finally arrived at the ancient site of Troy. The Granicus River was east of Troy.

Reading

Part One

Then he went to Delphi, to consult Apollo concerning the success of the war he had undertaken; and happening to come on one of the forbidden days, when it was esteemed improper to give any answer from the oracle, he sent messengers to desire the priestess to do her office; and when she refused, on the plea of a law to the contrary, he went up himself, and began to draw her by force into the temple, until tired and overcome with his importunity: "My son," said she, "thou art invincible." Alexander taking hold of what she spoke, declared he had received such an answer as he wished for, and that it was needless to consult the god any further.

Among other prodigies that attended the departure of his army, the image of Orpheus at Libethra, made of cypress-wood, was seen to sweat in great abundance, to the discouragement of many. But Aristander told him that, far from presaging any ill to him, it signified he should perform acts so important and glorious as would make the poets and musicians of future ages labour and sweat to describe and celebrate them.

His army, by the computation of those who make the smallest amount, consisted of thirty thousand foot and four thousand horse; and those who make the most of it speak but of forty-three thousand foot, and three thousand horse. Aristobulus says he had not a fund of above seventy talents for their pay; nor had he more than thirty days' provision, if we may believe Duris; Onesicritus tells us he was two hundred talents in debt.

Now, notwithstanding that he began this war with so small ability to maintain it, he would never take ship before he understood the state of his friends, to know what ability they had to go with him, and before he had given unto some, lands, and unto others, a town, and to others again, the revenue of some hamlet or harbour-town. Thus, by his bounty having in manner spent almost the revenues of the crown of Macedon, Perdiccas asked him: "My lord, what will you keep for yourself?" "Hope," said he. "Then," quoth Perdiccas again, "we will also have some part, since we go with you," and so he refused the revenue which the king had given him for his pension. Many others did also the like. But such as were contented to take his liberality, or would ask him anything, he gave them very frankly, and in such liberality he spent all the revenue he had.

With such vigorous resolutions, and his mind thus disposed, he passed the Hellespont, and at Troy sacrificed to Diana [Dryden: Minerva], and honoured the memory of the heroes who were buried there, with solemn libations; especially Achilles, whose grave he anointed with oil, and with his friends, as the ancient custom is, ran naked about his sepulcher, and crowned it with garlands, declaring how happy he esteemed him, in having while he lived so faithful a friend, and when he was dead, so famous a poet to sing his praise.

 When he had done, and went up and down the city to see all the monuments and notable things, someone asked him if he would like to see Paris's harp. He answered [that] he would prefer to see Achilles' harp, to which he used to sing the glories and great actions of brave men.

Part Two

In the meantime, Darius, king of Persia, having levied a great army, sent his captains and lieutenants to tarry Alexander at the Granicus River. There was Alexander to fight of necessity, it being the only bar to stop his entry into Asia. Moreover, his generals were afraid of the depth of this river, and of the height of the bank on the other side, which was very high and steep, and could not be won without fighting. And some said also, that he should have special care of the ancient regard of the month: because the kings of Macedon did never use to put their army into the field in the month of Dason [or Daesius], which is June. "For that," said Alexander, "we will remedy soon: let them call it the second month, Artemisium, which is May." Furthermore, Parmenion was of opinion that he should not meddle the first day, because it was very late. Alexander made answer again, that the Hellespont would blush for shame if he were now afraid to pass over the river, since he had already come over an arm of the sea.

Thereupon he himself first entered the river with thirteen troops of horsemen, and marched forwards against an infinite number of arrows which the enemies shot at him as he was coming up the other bank, which was very high and steep, and worst of all, full of armed men and horsemen of the enemies: which stayed to receive him in battle array, thrusting his men down into the river, which was very deep, and ran so swift that it almost carried them down the stream: insomuch that men thought him more rash than wise, to lead his men with such danger.

However, he persisted obstinately to gain the passage, and at last with much ado making his way up the banks, which were extremely muddy and slippery, he had instantly to join in a mere confused hand-to-hand combat with the enemy, before he could draw up his men, who were still passing over, into any order. For the enemy pressed him with loud and warlike outcries; and charging horse against horse, plied with their lances; after they had broken and spent these, they fell to it with their swords. And Alexander, being easily known by his buckler, and a large plume of white feathers on each side of his helmet, was attacked on all sides, yet escaped wounding, though his [armour] was pierced by a javelin in one of the joinings.

Part Three

Thereupon Roesaces and Spithridates, two chief captains of the Persians, setting upon Alexander at once: he left the one, and riding straight to Roesaces, who was excellently armed, he gave him such a blow with his lance that he broke it in his hand, and straight drew out his sword. But so soon as they two had closed together, Spithridates coming at the side of him, raised himself upon his stirrups and gave Alexander with all his might such a blow of his head with a battle-axe, that he cut off the crest of his helmet, and one of the sides of his plume, and made such a gash that the edge of his battle-axe touched the very hair of his head. And as he was lifting up his hand to strike Alexander again, great Cleitus, preventing him, thrust him through with a spear; and at the very same instant, Roesaces also fell dead from his horse with a wound which Alexander gave him with his sword.

Now whilst the horsemen fought with such fury, the Macedonian phalanx passed the river, and the foot soldiers on each side advanced to fight. But the enemy hardly sustaining the first onset soon gave ground and fled, all but the mercenary Greeks, who drew together upon a hill, and craved mercy of Alexander. But Alexander setting upon them, more of will than discretion, had his horse killed under him, being thrust through the flank with a sword. This was not Bucephalus, but another horse he had. And this obstinacy of his to cut off these experienced desperate men cost him the lives of more of his own soldiers than all the battle before, besides, those who were wounded.

The Persians lost in this battle twenty thousand foot and two thousand five hundred horse. On Alexander's side, Aristobulus says there were not wanting above four-and-thirty, of whom nine were foot soldiers; and in memory of them he caused so many statues of brass, of Lysippus's making, to be erected. And because he would make the Grecians partakers of this victory, he sent unto the Athenians three hundred bucklers, which he had won at the battle, and upon the rest he put this honourable inscription: "Alexander the son of Philip, and the Grecians, excepting the Lacedaemonians, have won this spoil upon the barbarous Asians."

All the plate and purple garments, and other things of the same kind that he took from the Persians (except a very small quantity which he reserved for himself), he sent as a present to his mother.

Narration and Discussion

Why did Alexander take the words of the priestess as a prophecy?

"Alexander made answer again, that the Hellespont would blush for shame if he were now afraid to pass over the river…" What did he mean?

Creative narration: In a journal entry, or a letter to someone at home, describe the crossing of the Granicus.

For further thought: If you could see and touch some artifact from history (or from literature), what would you choose?

Lesson Five

Introduction

After their initial victory at the Battle of Granicus, the Macedonians seemed to have gained some respect from the Persian cities they passed through. Alexander and Darius both expected that they would soon fight face to face, but this was delayed by Alexander's illness in Cilicia.

Vocabulary

venture all: risk everything

by the Grecians: in this case, "Grecians" refers to the Macedonians

clear: conquer

the ancient Midas: a king of Phrygia, who allegedly turned everything he touched into gold

the knot: the Gordian Knot (see note before the reading)

levied: assembled

extreme pains and travail: exhaustion, overwork

People

Philip the Acarnanian: Alexander's personal physician

Historic Occasions

April-July, 333 B.C.: Alexander's visit to Gordium

September, 333 B.C.: Alexander arrived in Cilicia and became ill

On the Map

All the places named in this lesson are located in the region called Asia. Some of them will sound familiar to those who have read the Christian New Testament, especially the Book of Acts.

In Part One, the Macedonians' route after Granicus was south to Sardis, and then west to the Mediterranean, where they followed the coast around what is now southern Turkey, to the city of Phaselis on the coast of Lycia. In Part Two, they seem to have gone north (Gordium is more than halfway up to the ), and then looped around south again.

Phrygia: a kingdom of Asia

Xanthus (Xanthos) in Lycia: an ancient city, located in what is present-day Turkey, on the Mediterranean Sea

Cilicia: a region within the Persian empire, part of present-day Turkey

Phoenicia: a region east of the Mediterranean Sea, primarily located in present-day Lebanon

Pamphylia: a region between Lycia and Cilicia

Pisidia, Paphlagonia, Cappadocia: other regions of Asia

Susa: the capital city of the Persian Empire (in present-day Iran)

What was the Gordian Knot?

In Phrygia, once upon a time, it was decided that the next man to enter the city would become king. A farmer named Gordias came along driving an ox-cart, was therefore named king, and his now-unneeded cart was left there, tied up with an intricate knot. (Interestingly, Gordias is supposed to have been from Macedonia.) A legend grew up that the one who undid the knot would rule Asia, and many would-be rulers tried but failed. Most tellers of the story say that Alexander simply cut the knot; but Plutarch offers an alternative version, saying that it was possible to undo the knot by removing the linchpin (a fastener) from the cart wheel.

"Cutting a Gordian knot" refers to a bold or unexpected solution to a difficult problem. But the famous preacher Charles Haddon Spurgeon, in a sermon titled "God's Providence," did not approve of Alexander's method, or (perhaps more) of his arrogance. He said, "God has many Gordian knots which wicked men may cut and which righteous men may try to unravel, but which God alone can untie."

Reading

Part One

This first victory brought such a sudden change amongst the barbarous people in Alexander's behalf, that the city itself of Sardis, the chief city of the empire of the barbarous people, or at the least through all the low countries and coasts upon the sea, they yielded straight unto him, excepting the cities of Halicarnassus and Miletus, which did still resist him: howbeit at length he took them by force.

When he had also conquered all thereabouts, he stood in doubt afterwards about what were best to do. Sometimes he had a marvellous desire wholly to follow Darius, wheresoever he were, and to venture all at a battle. Another time again, he thought it better first to occupy himself in conquering of these low countries, and to make himself strong with the money and riches he should find among them, that he might afterwards be the better able to follow him.

While he was thus deliberating what to do, it happened that a spring of water near the city of Xanthus in Lycia, of its own accord, swelled over its banks, and threw up a copper plate, upon the margin of which was engraved in ancient characters, that the time would come when the kingdom of the Persians should be destroyed by the Grecians. This did further so encourage Alexander that he made haste to clear all the sea coast, even as far as Cilicia and Phoenicia. But the wonderful good success he had, running alongst all the coast of Pamphylia, gave divers historiographers occasion to set forth his doings with admiration, saying that it was one of the wonders of the world that the fury of the sea, which unto all other was extremely rough, and many times would swell over the tops of the high rocks upon the cliffs, fell calm unto him.

[omission for length]

Part Two

Then he subdued the Pisidians [omission]; and conquered the Phrygians, at whose chief city, Gordium, which is said to be the seat of the ancient Midas, he saw the famous chariot fastened with cords made of the rind of the cornel-tree, which whosoever should untie, the inhabitants had a tradition that for him was reserved the empire of the world. Most authors tell the story that Alexander finding himself unable to untie the knot, the ends of which were secretly twisted round and folded up within it, cut it asunder with his sword. But Aristobulus tells us it was easy for him to undo it, by only pulling the pin out of the pole to which the yoke was tied, and afterwards drawing off the yoke itself from below.

From hence he advanced into Paphlagonia and Cappadocia, both which countries he soon reduced to obedience, and then hearing of the death of Memnon, the best commander Darius had upon the sea-coasts, and in whom was all their hope to trouble and withstand Alexander, he was the rather encouraged to carry the war into the upper provinces of Asia.

Part Three

Then did King Darius himself come against Alexander, having levied a great power at Susa of six hundred thousand fighting men; trusting to that multitude, and also to a dream, the which his wizards [Dryden: the Persian soothsayers] had expounded rather to flatter him than to tell him truly. Darius dreamed that he saw all the army of the Macedonians all on fire, and Alexander serving of him in the same attire that he himself wore when he was courier unto the late king his predecessor; and that when he came into the temple of Belus, he [Alexander] suddenly vanished from him. By this dream it plainly appeared that the gods did signify unto him that the Macedonians should have noble success in their doings, and that as he, from a courier's place, had risen to the throne, so Alexander should come to be master of Asia, and not long surviving his conquests, conclude his life with glory.

This furthermore made him bold also, when he saw that Alexander remained a good while in Cilicia, supposing it had been for that he was afraid of him. Howbeit it was by reason of a sickness he [Alexander] had, the which some say he got by extreme pains and travail, and others also, because he washed himself in the river of Cydnus, which was cold as ice. However, it happened, none of his physicians would venture to give him any remedies, they thought his case so desperate, and were so afraid of the suspicions and ill-will of the Macedonians if they should fail in the cure; till Philip the Acarnanian, seeing how critical his case was, but relying on his own well-known friendship for him, resolved to try the last efforts of his art, and rather hazard his own credit and life than suffer him to perish for want of physic, which he confidently administered to him, encouraging him to drink it boldly if he would quickly be whole, and go to the wars.

In the meantime, Parmenion wrote him [Alexander] a letter from the camp, advertising him that he should beware of Philip his physician, for he said that Philip was bribed and corrupted by Darius, with large promises of great riches that he would give him, along with his daughter in marriage, to kill his master.

Alexander when he had read this letter, laid it under his bed's head, and made none of his nearest familiars acquainted therewith. When the hour came that he should take his medicine, Philip came into his chamber, with some of the king's familiars, and brought a cup in his hand with the potion he should drink. Alexander then gave him the letter, and withal, cheerfully took the cup of him, showing no manner of fear or mistrust of anything. It was a wonderful thing and worth the sight, how one reading the letter, and the other drinking the medicine both at one instant, they looked one upon another, howbeit not both with like cheerful countenance.

For Alexander looked merrily upon him, plainly showing the trust he had in his physician Philip, and how much he loved him; and the physician also beheld Alexander, like a man perplexed and amazed, to be so falsely accused, and straight lifted up his hands to heaven, calling the gods to witness that he was innocent, and then came to Alexander's bedside, and prayed him to be of good cheer, and boldly to do as he would advise him.

The medicine, beginning to work, overcame the disease, and drove, for the time, to the lowest parts of his body, all his natural strength and powers: insomuch as his speech failed him, and he fell into such a weakness, and almost swooning, that his pulse did scant beat, and his senses were well near taken from him. However, in no long time, by Philip's means, his health and strength returned, and he showed himself in public to the Macedonians; for they would not be pacified, nor persuaded of his health, until they had seen him.

Narration and Discussion

Why did Alexander have so much success in conquering these regions of the Persian empire? To what did he give the credit?

How was Alexander's illness a Gordian knot for his physician?

Creative narration: The "wizards" (or "wise men") of Darius used his dream about Alexander to boost his confidence, by twisting its meaning. Plutarch's description of the dream, however, does not sound very affirming. How might it have been re-interpreted to sound more positive? This is a scene that could be written or acted out.

Creative narration: Both the cutting of the Gordian knot and the scene between Alexander and Philip would lend themselves to drama, art, or creative writing.

Lesson Six

Introduction

Plutarch sets the scene for the Battle of Issus, stating that the odds were against the Macedonians from the beginning: they were outnumbered and at a geographical disadvantage. Somehow, through good leadership and perhaps good luck, the Macedonians won an unexpected victory. King Darius escaped, but left everything behind, including his relatives and his bathtub.

Vocabulary

passes and defiles: narrow valleys or passages, usually through mountains

his horse: the Macedonian cavalry

four or five furlongs: four furlongs are half a mile (0.8 km)

sacking and spoiling: stealing all the valuables from a place, and usually destroying it in the process

vanquished: conquered

ewers: water jugs

sumptuous: rich, luxurious

People

Amyntas: Alexander had an officer named Amyntas, but this is someone else with the same name.

Antipater: see introductory notes

Historic Occasions

November, 333 B.C.: Battle of Issus

On the Map

Syria: Coele-Syria, a region which is part of present-day Syria and Lebanon

Issus is in the large gulf at the northeastern corner of the Mediterranean, between Antioch and Tarsus.

Cilician Gates: a pass through the mountains into that region

Reading

There was at this time in Darius's army a Macedonian refugee named Amyntas, one who was pretty well acquainted with Alexander's character. This man, when he saw Darius intended to fall upon the enemy in the passes and defiles, advised him earnestly to keep where he was, in the open and extensive plains, it being the advantage of a numerous army to have field-room enough when it engages with a lesser force. Darius, instead of taking his counsel, told him he was afraid the enemy would endeavour to run away, and so Alexander would escape out of his hands. Amyntas replied, "For that, O King, I pray you fear not: for I warrant you upon my life he will come to you, yea and is now onwards on his way coming towards you." All these persuasions of Amyntas could not turn Darius from making his camp to march towards Cilicia.

At the same time also, Alexander went towards Syria to meet with him. But it chanced one night, that the one of them missed of the other, and when day was come, they both returned back again.

 Alexander, greatly pleased with this event, made all the haste he could to fight in the defiles; and Darius to recover his former ground, and draw his army out of so disadvantageous a place. For now he began to perceive his error in engaging himself too far in a country in which the sea, the mountains, and the River Pinarus running through the midst of it, would necessitate him to divide his forces, render his horse almost unserviceable, and only cover and support the weakness of the enemy.

But now, as Fortune gave Alexander the field as he would wish it to fight for his advantage, so could he tell excellently well how to set his men in battle array to win the victory. For being much inferior in numbers, so far from allowing himself to be outflanked, he did put out the right wing of his battle a great deal further than he did his left wing; and fighting himself in the left wing in the foremost ranks, he made all the barbarous people flee that stood before him: howbeit, he was hurt on his thigh with a blow of a sword. Chares writeth that Darius himself did hurt him, and that they fought together man to man [Dryden: hand to hand]. But in the account which he gave Antipater of the battle, though indeed he owns he was wounded in the thigh with a sword, though not dangerously, yet he takes no notice who it was that wounded him.

Thus, having won a famous victory, and slain above a hundred and ten thousand of his enemies, he could not yet take Darius, because he fled, having still four or five furlongs' advantage before him: howbeit he [Alexander] took his chariot of battle wherein he fought, and his bow also. Then he returned from the chase, and found the Macedonians sacking and spoiling all the rest of the camp of the barbarous people, where there was infinite riches (although they had left the most part of their carriage behind them in the city of Damascus, to come lighter to the battle); but they yet reserved for himself all King Darius' tent, which was full of a great number of rich movables, and of gold and silver. So, when he was come to the camp, putting off his armour, he entered into the bath and said, "Come on, let us go and wash off the sweat of the battle in Darius' own bath."

"Nay," replied one of his familiars again, "in Alexander's bath; for the goods of the vanquished are rightly the vanquisher's." When he came into the bath, and saw the basins and ewers, the boxes, and vials for perfumes, all of clean gold, excellently wrought, all the chamber perfumed passing sweetly, that it was like a paradise; then going out of his bath, and coming into his tent, seeing it so stately and large, his bed, the table, and supper, and all ready in such sumptuous sort, that it was wonderful, he turned him unto his familiars and said: "This was a king indeed, was he not, think ye?" [Dryden: "This, it seems, is royalty."]

Narration and Discussion

Why did Darius not take the advice of Amyntas, and fight in the open country where he was? Explain Amyntas' response.

What does this passage show about the character and leadership of Alexander?

Creative narration: You are a reporter on the scene after the Battle of Issus. Try to interview a variety of onlookers and participants. (This could be acted or written.) Another possibility: make a "Most Wanted" poster for King Darius, giving pertinent details.

Lesson Seven

Introduction

This lesson concludes the Battle of Issus, but it tells mainly about the generous and gallant aspects of Alexander's character.

Vocabulary

good hap: good fortune, luck

clemency: grace, generosity, mercy

pensions for their maintenance: financial allowances

usage: treatment

preceptor, governor: tutor and personal trainer

delicate or superfluous: self-indulgent, luxurious, unnecessary

nuptial solemnities: weddings

curious: careful

a temper of ostentation…: a bragging mood, showing off

a great advantage to ride him: an opportunity to mock him

base: demeaning, low

in a great strait: under a good deal of pressure

drachmas: a drachma was a silver coin

People

Leonnatus: a high-ranking Macedonian officer (not to be confused with Leonidas)

Princess Ada: Ada of Caria has an interesting history as a ruler. When Alexander entered her region of Caria (in present-day Turkey), Ada surrendered the fort she was holding, and in return he gave her command of the Siege of Halicarnassus.

Reading

As he was ready to go to his supper, word was brought to him that they were bringing unto him, amongst other ladies taken prisoners, King Darius' mother and his wife, and two unmarried daughters: who, having seen his chariot and bow, burst out into lamentable cries, and violent beating of themselves, thinking Darius had been slain. Alexander paused a good while and gave no answer, pitying more their misfortune than rejoicing at his own good hap. Then he presently sent Leonnatus unto them, to let them understand that Darius was alive, and that they should not need to be afraid of Alexander, for he did not fight with Darius, but for his kingdom only; and as for them, that they should have at his hands all that they had of Darius before, when he had his whole kingdom in his hands.

As these words pleased the captive ladies, so the deeds that followed made them find his clemency to be no less. For first he suffered them to bury as many of the Persian lords as they would, even of them that had been slain in the battle, and to take as much silks of the spoils, jewels, and ornaments, as they thought good to honour their funerals with; and also he did lessen no part of their honour, nor of the number of their officers and servants, nor of any jot of their estate which they had before, but did allow them also greater pensions for their maintenance than they had before. But the noblest and most royal part of their usage was that he treated these illustrious prisoners according to their virtue and character, not suffering them to hear, or receive, or so much as to apprehend anything that was unbecoming. So that they seemed rather lodged in some temple, or some holy virgin chambers, where they enjoyed their privacy sacred and uninterrupted, than in the camp of an enemy.

[omission: examples of Alexander's chastity]

[Alexander] was also no greedy gut, but temperate in eating, as he showed by many proofs: but chiefly in what he said unto Princess Ada, whom he adopted for his mother, and afterwards created queen of Caria. For when she, out of kindness, sent him every day many curious dishes and sweetmeats, and would have furnished him with some cooks and pastry-men, who were thought to have great skills, he told her he wanted none of them, his preceptor, Leonidas, having already given him the best, which were a night march to prepare for breakfast, and a moderate breakfast to create an appetite for supper. Leonidas also, he added, used to open and search the furniture of his chamber and his wardrobe, to see if his mother had left him anything that was delicate or superfluous.

Furthermore, he was less given to wine than men would have judged; that which gave people occasion to think so of him was, that when he had nothing else to do, he loved to sit long and talk, rather than drink, and over every cup hold a long conversation. For when his affairs called upon him, he would not be detained, as other generals often were, either by wine, or sleep, nuptial solemnities, spectacles, or any other diversion whatsoever; a convincing argument of which is, that in the short time he lived, he accomplished so many and so great actions.

When he had leisure, after he was up in the morning, first of all he would do sacrifice to the gods, and then would go to dinner, passing away all the rest of the day in hunting, writing something, taking up some quarrel between soldiers, or else in studying. If he went on any journey of no hasty business, he would exercise himself by the way as he went, shooting in his bow, or learning to get up or out of his chariot suddenly, as it ran. Oftentimes also for his pastime he would hunt the fox or catch birds, as appeareth in his book of remembrances for every day. Then when he came to his lodging, he would enter into his bath, and rub and anoint himself, and would ask his bakers and chief cooks if his supper were ready. He would ever sup late, and he was very curious to see that every man at his board were alike served, and he would sit long at the table, because he ever loved to talk, as we have told you before. And then, though otherwise no prince's conversation was ever so agreeable, he would fall into a temper of ostentation and soldierly boasting, which gave his flatterers a great advantage to ride him, and made his better friends very uneasy. For though they thought it too base to strive who should flatter him most, yet they found it hazardous not to do it; so that between the shame and the danger, they were in a great strait how to behave themselves. After supper, he would wash himself again, and sleep until noon the next day following, and oftentimes all day long.

He was so very temperate in his eating that when any rare fish or fruits were sent him, he would distribute them among his friends, and often reserve nothing for himself. His table notwithstanding was always very honourably served, and he did still increase his fare, as he did enlarge his conquests, till it came to the sum of ten thousand drachmas a day. But there he stayed, and would not exceed that sum, and moreover commanded all men that would feast him, that they should not spend above that sum.

Narration and Discussion

How did Alexander treat the female relatives of King Darius? What does this show about his character?

In what ways did Alexander show moderation in his personal life? How did those habits allow him to get a lot done?

Creative narration: In a creative way, tell about Alexander's teacher Leonidas. (Somewhat anachronistic possibilities might include Alexander flipping through his childhood photo album.)

For further thought: In 332 B.C., Alexander "conquered" Palestine while on his way to Egypt; and the historian Josephus wrote (much later) that Alexander visited the temple in Jerusalem and that a priest showed him prophecies—possibly about himself—in the Book of Daniel. Whether or not that story is true, it is not impossible that Alexander read some Old Testament writings along with his other books. Choose a passage from the Book of Proverbs, or Ecclesiastes, and consider what impact it might have had on this young ruler.

Lesson Eight

Introduction

Alexander never seemed to stop moving and conquering. His army bulldozed southward through many ancient strongholds, eventually taking even the stubborn city of Tyre.

Vocabulary

gallantry: bravery

barbarous: in this case, the luxurious Persian lifestyle

necessary to assure himself of the seacoast: he needed to take control of the ports along the coast of the Mediterranean

bulwarks and divers engines of battery: war machines and weapons

benighted: forced to stop for the night

firebrand: torch, or blazing stick of wood from the fire

entrails: innards

prognosticate: prophesy

frankincense, myrrh: aromatic (fragrant) gum resins, burned as incense

People

Lysimachus: see introductory notes

Phoenix, Achilles' guardian: Phoenix went with Achilles to the Trojan war, in Homer's Iliad

Historic Occasions

332 B.C.: Alexander conquered Tyre in Phoenicia, then Syria

On the Map

Alexander followed the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, through Phoenicia, and besieged Tyre. The Macedonians then marched through Syria (see map notes for Lesson Six) and Palestine (including the city of Gaza).

Damascus: the capital city of Syria

Cyprus: the third-largest island in the Mediterranean

Mount Antilibanus: mountains between Syria and Lebanon

Reading

Part One

After the Battle of Issus [Lesson Six], Alexander sent to Damascus to seize upon the money and baggage, the wives and children of the Persians, of which spoil the Thessalian horsemen had the greatest share; for he had taken particular notice of their gallantry in the fight, and sent them thither on purpose to make their reward suitable to their courage; and so were the rest of his army also well stored with money. There the Macedonians having tasted first of the gold, silver, women, and barbarous life: as dogs by scent do follow the track of beasts, even so were they greedy to follow after the goods of the Persians. But Alexander, before he proceeded any further, thought it necessary to assure himself of the seacoast. Those who governed in Cyprus put that island into his possession, and Phoenicia, the city of Tyre only excepted, was surrendered to him. That city he besieged seven months together by land, with great bulwarks and divers engines of battery, and by sea, with two hundred galleys.

[omission for length: Alexander's dreams of Hercules and mythical beasts]

Continuing this siege, he went to make war with the Arabians that dwell upon Mount Antilibanus, in which he hazarded his life extremely to [save] his master Lysimachus, who would needs go along with him, declaring that he was neither "older nor inferior in courage to Phoenix," Achilles' guardian. For when they came at the foot of the mountain, they left their horses, and went up afoot: and Alexander was of so courteous a nature, that he would not leave his tutor Lysimachus behind him (who was so weary that he could go no further); but because it was dark night, and for that the enemies were not far from them, he came behind to encourage his tutor, and in manner to carry him. By this means, unawares, he was far from his army with very few men about him, and benighted besides: moreover, it was very cold, and the way was very ill.

At the length, perceiving divers fires which the enemies had made, some in one place, and some in another, trusting to his valiantness, having always provided remedy in extremity when the Macedonians were distressed, himself ever putting to his own hand: he ran unto them that had made the fires next him, and killing two of the barbarous people that lay by the fireside, he snatched away a firebrand, and ran with it to his own men, who made a great fire. At this the barbarous people were so afraid, that they ran their way as fast as they could. Others also thinking to come and set upon him, he slew them every man, and so lay there that night, himself and his men without danger. Thus Chares reporteth this matter.

Part Two

Now for the siege of Tyre, that fell out thus. Alexander caused the most part of his army to take rest, being overharried and wearied with so many battles as they had fought: and sent a few of his men only to give assault unto the city, to keep the Tyrians occupied, that they should take no rest. One day the soothsayer Aristander sacrificing unto the gods, having considered of the signs of the entrails of the beasts, did assure them that were present, that the city should be taken by the latter end of the month. Everybody laughed to hear him: for that day was the very last day of the month. Alexander seeing him amazed, as one that could not tell what to say to it, seeking ever to bring those tokens to effect which the soothsayers did prognosticate: he gave orders that they should not count it as the thirtieth, but as the twenty-third of the month. He made the trumpet sound the alarm, and give a hotter assault to the wall than he had thought to have done before. They fought valiantly on both sides, insomuch as they that were left in the camp could not keep in but must needs run to the assault to help their companions. The Tyrians seeing the assault so hot on every side, their hearts began to fail them, and by this means was the city taken the selfsame day.

[short omission]

Part Three

Alexander sent great presents of spoils which he won at the sack of Gaza unto his mother Olympias, his stepmother Cleopatra, and divers others of his friends. Among other things, he sent unto Leonidas, his governor [Lesson Seven], five hundred talents' weight of frankincense and a hundred talents' weight of myrrh, remembering the hope he put him into when he was a child. For, as Alexander was one day sacrificing unto the gods, he took both his hands full of frankincense to cast into the fire, to make a perfume thereof. When Leonidas saw him, he said thus unto him: "When thou hast conquered the country where these sweet things grow, then be liberal of thy perfume: but now, spare that little thou hast at this present." Alexander calling to mind at that time his admonition, wrote unto him in this sort: "We do send thee plenty of frankincense and myrrh, because thou shouldst no more be a miser unto the gods."

Narration and Discussion

Alexander's world was full of prophecies, dreams, and sacrifices to gods. At the same time, his methods of warfare seem to have been extremely practical: war engines, sieges, and, when necessary, stealing fire and stabbing those he believed to be enemies. Does Alexander seem to have put more trust in the supernatural, or in his own strength?

How did Alexander's gift to his old tutor show a sense of humour?

Creative narration: Dramatize the story of changing the calendar. (You might tell it from the perspective of someone who has to deal with several days suddenly added to their month.)

Lesson Nine

Introduction

Alexander marked his time in Egypt first by laying out plans for the city of Alexandria, and then by taking an arduous pilgrimage through the desert to the temple of Jupiter Ammon.

Vocabulary

casket: box, chest

a great city: Alexandria

these verses: these are lines from Homer's Odyssey

mole: a stone causeway or raised road

isthmus: a narrow strip of land

the charge of the building: Alexander remained in Egypt for only a few months and never saw more than the foundations of the city.

seconded: assisted

element: sky, heavens

blaspheme: speak irreverently about sacred things

it went for current: the rumour went around

divine generation: being born of gods

Historic Occasions

331? B.C.: the founding of Alexandria. Some sources give the date as 332, or even 334.

On the Map

The Macedonians made a long, looping journey through the northern part of Egypt, stopping along the way to establish Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast. This detour was due to Alexander's wish to visit the temple of Jupiter Ammon, or Zeus Ammon. Ammon was the Greek name for the Egyptian god Aman; they must have found it fitting, because "ammos" is the Greek word for "sand."

Pharos: a small island on the western edge of the Nile Delta

Reading

Part One

Among the treasures and other booty that was taken from Darius, there was a very precious casket, which, being brought to Alexander for a great rarity, he asked those about him what they thought fittest to be laid up in it. Some said one thing, some said another thing: but he said, he would put Homer's Iliad into it, as the worthiest thing. This is confirmed by the best historiographers; and if what those of Alexandria tell us, relying upon the authority of Heraclides, be true, then it appeareth that he did profit himself much by Homer in this journey.

For it is reported that when he had conquered Egypt, he determined to build a great city, and to replenish it with a great number of Grecians, and to call it after his name. But as he was about to enclose a certain ground, which he had chosen by the advice of his engineers and workmasters: the night before he had a marvellous dream, that he saw an old man standing before him, full of white hairs, with an honourable presence, who coming towards him said these verses:

       "An island lies, where loud the billows roar,
       Pharos, they call it, on the Egyptian shore."

Alexander upon this immediately rose up and went to Pharos, which at that time was an island lying a little above the Canobic mouth of the river Nile, though it has now been joined to the mainland by a mole. As soon as he saw the commodious situation of the place, it being a long neck of land, stretching like an isthmus between large lagoons and shallow waters on one side and the sea on the other, the latter at the end of it making a spacious harbour, he said, "Homer, besides his other excellences, was a very good architect," and he ordered the plan of a city to be drawn out answerable to the place. To do which, for want of chalk, the soil being black, they laid out their lines with flour [Dryden: meal], taking in a pretty large compass of ground in a semi-circular figure, and drawing into the inside of the circumference equal straight lines from each end, thus giving it something of the form of a cloak or cape.

While he was pleasing himself with his design, on a sudden an infinite number of great birds of several kinds, rising like a black cloud out of the river and the lake, devoured every morsel of the flour that had been used in setting out the lines; at which omen even Alexander himself was troubled. Notwithstanding, his soothsayers bade him not be discouraged, for they told him it was a sign that he should build a city there, so plentiful of all things, that he should maintain all sorts of people. Then he commanded them unto whom he had given the charge of the building, that they should go forward with their work; and he himself, in the meantime, took his journey to go visit the temple of Jupiter Ammon.

Part Two

This was a long and painful, and, in two respects, a dangerous journey; first, if they should lose their provision of water, as for several days none could be obtained; and, secondly, if a violent south wind should rise upon them, while they were travelling through the wide extent of deep sands, as it is said to have done when Cambyses led his army that way, blowing the sand together in heaps, and raising, as it were, the whole desert like a sea upon them, till fifty thousand were swallowed up and destroyed by it.

All these difficulties were weighed and represented to him; but Alexander was not easily to be diverted from anything he was bent upon. For Fortune having hitherto seconded him in his designs, made him resolute and firm in his opinions, and the boldness of his temper raised a sort of passion in him for surmounting difficulties, as if it were not enough to be always victorious in the field, unless places and seasons and nature herself submitted to him.

In that journey, the relief and assistance the gods afforded him in his distresses were more remarkable, and obtained greater belief than the oracles he received afterwards, which, however, were valued and credited the more on account of those occurrences. First of all, the wonderful water and great showers that fell from the element did keep him from fear of the first danger, and did quench their thirst, and moistened the dryness of the sand in such sort, that there came a sweet fresh air from it. Furthermore, when the marks were hidden from the guides to show them the way, and they wandered up and down, they could not tell where: there came crows unto them that did guide them, flying before them: flying fast when they saw them follow them, and staying for them when they were behind. But Callisthenes writeth a greater wonder than this: that in the nighttime, with the very noise of the crows, they brought them again into the right way those which had lost their way.

Thus, Alexander in the end having passed through this wilderness, he came unto the temple he sought for: where the prophet or chief priest saluted him from the god Ammon, as from his father. Then Alexander asked him, if any of the murderers that had killed his father were left alive. The priest answered him, and bade him take heed he did not blaspheme, for his father was no mortal man. Then Alexander [brief omission] asked him if the murderers that had conspired the death of Philip his father were all punished.

After that he asked him, touching his kingdom, if he would grant him to be king over all the world. The god answered him by the mouth of his prophet, he should: and that the death of Philip was fully revenged. Then did Alexander offer great presents unto the god, and he gave much money to the priests and ministers of the temple. This is that which the most part of writers do declare, touching Alexander's demand, and the oracles given him. Yet did Alexander himself write unto his mother that he had secret oracles from the god, which he would only impart unto her at his return into Macedon.

Others say that the priest, desirous as a piece of courtesy to address him in Greek by saying "O Paidion" (dear son), by a slip in pronunciation ended with the "s" instead of the "n," and said "O Paidios" (son of Jupiter), which mistake Alexander was well enough pleased with; and it went for current that the oracle had called him so.

Part Three (optional)

It is said also, that he heard Psammon the philosopher in Egypt, and that he liked his words very well, when he said that God was king of all mortal men: "For," (quoth he), "he that commandeth all things must needs be God." But Alexander himself spoke better, and like a philosopher, when he said that God generally was father to all mortal men, but that particularly he did elect the best sort for himself. To conclude, he showed himself more arrogant unto the barbarous people, and made as though he certainly believed that he had been begotten of some god; but unto the Grecians he spoke more modestly of divine generation.

For in a letter he wrote unto the Athenians touching the city of Samos, he said: "I gave ye not that noble free city, but it was given you, at that time, by him whom they called my lord and father": meaning Philip. Afterwards also, being stricken with an arrow and feeling great pain of it: "My friends," said he, "This blood which is spilt is man's blood, and not as Homer said: ‘No such as from the immortal gods doth flow.'"

[short omission]

Narration and Discussion

How did Alexander "profit himself much by Homer in this journey?"

How did the soothsayers reassure Alexander after the birds ate up his plans for the city?

For older students: Plutarch says, "But Alexander himself spoke better, and like a philosopher, when he said that God generally was father to all mortal men, but that particularly he did elect the best sort for himself." Compare this with Christian beliefs (e.g. John 3:16).

For further thought: Was Alexander's strength and success due to his own skills, to the favouring of "Fortune," or was there something else behind it?

Lesson Ten

Introduction

This lesson moves from the imagined tragedies at a drama contest to the real grief of Darius at the loss of his queen. Surprisingly, this gave Darius less anger at Alexander (who had caused their separation), but rather more respect for him. However, since Alexander had rejected Darius' negotiations for a peaceful sharing of the Persian empire, the only possible response was a final battle.

Vocabulary

tragedies: theatrical performances

equipage: equipment, stage sets

chorus: in Greek theater, a group of actors who commented on the action of the play, usually with song and dance

satisfy the penalty: pay the fine

ten talents: a very large sum of money

ten thousand talents: an incredibly large sum of money

amity and alliance: friendship and co-operation

without dissimulation: without any pretense

eunuch: a particular type of male servant

travail of child: childbirth

On the Map

Alexander ended his Egyptian journey, retraced his route back to Tyre, headed east through Damascus, and eventually crossed the Euphrates River.

Reading

Part One

At his return out of Egypt into Phoenicia, he sacrificed and made solemn processions, to which were added shows of lyric dances and tragedies, remarkable not merely for the splendour of the equipage and decorations, but for the competition among those who exhibited them. For the kings of Cyprus were here the exhibitors, just in the same manner as at Athens those who are chosen by lot out of the tribes. And, indeed, they [tried to outdo] each other; especially Nicocreon, king of Salamis, and Pasicrates of Soli, who furnished the chorus, and defrayed the expenses of the two most celebrated actors, Athenodorus and Thessalus, the former performing for Pasicrates, and the latter for Nicocrean. Thessalus was most favoured by Alexander, though it did not appear till Athenodorus was declared victor by the plurality of votes. For when he went from the plays, he told them he did like the judges' opinion well; notwithstanding, he would have been contented to have given the one half of his realm not to have seen Thessalus overcome. However, when he understood Athenodorus was fined by the Athenians for being absent at the festivals of Bacchus, though he refused his request that he would write a letter in his behalf, he gave him a sufficient sum to satisfy the penalty. Also, when Lycon of Scarphia, an excellent stage player, had pleased Alexander well and did slip in a verse in his comedy in which he begged for a present of ten talents: Alexander, laughing at it, gave it to him.

Part Two

Darius at that time wrote unto Alexander, and unto certain of his friends also, to pray him to take ten thousand talents for the ransom of all those prisoners he had in his hands, offering him in exchange for his amity and alliance all the countries on this side of the river Euphrates, and one of his daughters also in marriage, that from thenceforth he might be his kinsman and friend. These propositions he communicated to his friends, and when Parmenion told him that, for his part, if he were Alexander, he should readily embrace them, "So would I indeed," said Alexander, "if I were Parmenion." Accordingly, his answer to Darius was, that if he would come and yield himself up into his power he would treat him with all possible kindness; if not, he was resolved immediately go himself and seek him. But the death of Darius's wife in childbirth made him soon after regret one part of this answer; and he showed evident marks of grief at being thus deprived of a further opportunity of exercising his courtesy and clemency. This notwithstanding, he gave her body honourable burial, sparing for no cost.

Among the eunuchs who waited in the queen's chamber and were taken prisoners with the women, there was one Tireus, who, getting out of the camp, fled away on horseback to Darius, to inform him of his wife's death. Then Darius beating of his head, and weeping bitterly, cried out aloud: "Oh gods! what wretched hap have the Persians! that have not only had the wife and sister of their king taken prisoners even in his lifetime, but now that she is dead also in travail of child, she hath been deprived of princely burial!"

Then spoke the eunuch to him, and said:

"For her burial, most gracious King, and for all due honour that might be wished her, Persia hath no cause to complain of her hard fortune. For neither did Queen Statira your wife, whilst she lived prisoner, nor your mother nor daughters, want any part or jot of their honour they were wont to have before, saving only to see the light of your honour, the which the god Oromasdes will grant to restore again (if it be his will) unto your Majesty: neither was there any honour wanting at her death (to set forth her stately funerals) that might be gotten, but more was lamented also with the tears of your enemies. For Alexander is as merciful in victory as he is valiant in battle."

[omission]

Then Darius coming out among his friends again, holding up his hands unto the heavens, made this prayer unto the gods:

"O heavenly gods, creators of men, and protectors of kings and realms: First, I beseech you, grant me that restoring the Persians again to their former good state, I may leave the realm unto my successors, with that glory and fame I received it of my predecessors; that obtaining victory, I may use Alexander with that great honour and courtesy which he hath in my misery shown unto those I loved best in the world. Or otherwise, if the time appointed be come that the kingdom of Persia must needs have end, either through divine revenge, or by natural change of earthly things: then good gods yet grant that none but Alexander after me may sit in Cyrus' throne."

Divers writers do agree that these things came even thus to pass.

Narration and Discussion

Why did the Macedonians stage dramatic contests and other "pastimes" at that time?

Why did Alexander reject the offers from King Darius?

Why was Tireus so anxious to tell Darius that his wife had received proper treatment and a royal funeral? Might he not instead have wished to cast a negative light on Alexander?

For older students and further thought: How did Darius' prayer show magnanimity?

Lesson Eleven

Introduction

Plutarch leads up to the Battle of Gaugamela by describing some playfighting which got out of hand, but which also foreshadowed Alexander's victory.

Vocabulary

The servants who followed the camp: this is Dryden's phrase. North translates it "the slaves of his army."

heated with contention: hot-headed and ready to fight

leave: permission

he confided in: he had confidence in

worsted: beaten

munition: weapons

out of their battle: out of formation

carriage: weapons and other supplies

girt close about him: close-fitting

exhortations: speeches

People

Philotas, Parmenion: see introductory notes

Historic Occasions

October, 331 B.C.: Battle of Gaugamela

On the Map

Alexander continued eastward, crossing the Euphrates, heading somewhat north to cross the Tigris (another major river), following the Tigris for a distance, and ending up at the site of the battle (in today's northern Iraq).

mountains of the Gordyaeans: the Corduene region, in what is now eastern Turkey

Reading

Part One

Now Alexander having conquered all Asia this side of the Euphrates, he went to meet with Darius, who came down with ten hundred thousand fighting men [Dryden: a million of men]. In his march a very ridiculous passage happened. The servants who followed the camp, for sport's sake, divided themselves into two parties, and named the commander of one of them "Alexander," and the other "Darius." At first they only pelted one another with clods of earth, but presently took to their fists, and at last, heated with contention, they fought in good earnest with stones and clubs, so that they had much ado to part them; till Alexander, upon hearing of it, ordered the two captains to decide the quarrel by single combat, and armed him who bore his name himself, while Philotas did the same to him who represented Darius. All the army thereupon was gathered together to see this combat between them, as a thing that did betoken good or ill luck to some. The fight was sharp between them, but in the end, he that was called "Alexander" overcame the other. Alexander, to reward him, gave him twelve villages, with leave to wear the Persian dress. Thus it is written by Eratosthenes.

Part Two

The great battle that [the real] Alexander fought with Darius, was not (as many writers report) at Arbela, but at Gaugamela, which signifies in the Persian tongue, "the house of the camel." For some one of the ancient kings of Persia that had escaped from the hands of his enemies, fleeing upon a swift camel, in gratitude to his beast, settled him at this place, with an allowance of certain villages and rents for his maintenance.

There fell out at that time an eclipse of the moon, in the month called Boedromion (now August), about the time that the Feast of the Mysteries was celebrated at Athens. The eleventh night after that, both their armies being in sight of the other, Darius kept his men in battle array, and went himself by torchlight, viewing his bands and companies. Alexander, on the other side, whilst his Macedonian soldiers slept, was before his tent with Aristander the soothsayer; and made certain secret ceremonies and sacrifices unto Apollo [Dryden: the god Fear].

The oldest captains of the Macedonians, specially Parmenion, seeing all the valley betwixt the river of Niphates, and the mountains of the Gordyaeans, all on a bright light with the fires of the barbarous people, and hearing a dreadful noise as of a confused multitude of people that filled their camp with the sound thereof: they were amazed, and concluded that in one day it was in manner impossible to fight a battle with such an incredible multitude of people.

Thereupon they went unto Alexander after he had ended his ceremonies, and did counsel him to give battle by night, because the darkness thereof should help to keep all fear from his men, which the sight of their enemies would bring them into. To this he gave them the celebrated answer, "I will not steal a victory." Some at the time thought it a boyish and inconsiderate speech, as if he played with danger. Others, however, regarded it as evidence that he confided in his present condition, and acted on a true judgment of the future, not wishing to leave Darius, in case he were worsted, the pretext of trying his fortune again, which he might suppose himself to have, if he could impute his overthrow to the disadvantage of the night, as he did before to the mountains, the narrow passages, and the sea. "For," said he, "Darius will never leave to make wars with us for lack of men, nor munition, having so large a realm as he hath, and such a world of people besides; but then he will no more hazard battle, when his heart is done, and all hope taken from him, and that he seeth his army at noonday overthrown by plain battle."

After his captains were gone from him, he went into his tent, and laid him down to sleep, and slept all that night more soundly than he was wont to do before: insomuch as the lords and princes of his camp coming to wait upon him at his uprising, marvelled when they found him so sound asleep, and therefore of themselves they commanded the soldiers to eat. Afterwards, perceiving that time came fast upon them, Parmenion went into Alexander's chamber, and coming to his bedside, called him twice or thrice by his name, till at the last he waked him and asked him how it chanced that he slept so long, like one that had already overcome, and that did not think he should fight as great and dangerous a battle as ever he did in his life. "And are we not so, indeed," replied Alexander, smiling, "since we are at last relieved from the trouble of wandering in pursuit of Darius through a wide and wasted country, hoping in vain that he would fight us?"

Part Three

Now Alexander did not only show himself before the battle, but even at the very instant of battle, a noble man of courage and of great judgment. For Parmenion leading the left wing of his battle, the men of arms of the Bactrians gave such a fierce onset upon the Macedonians that they made them give back: and Mazeus also, King Darius' lieutenant, sent certain troops of horsemen out of their battle to give charge upon them that were left in the camp to guard the baggage.

This so disturbed Parmenion that he sent messengers to acquaint Alexander that the camp and baggage would be all lost, unless he immediately relieved the rear by a considerable reinforcement drawn out of the front. When this news came to Alexander from Parmenion, he had already given the signal of battle unto his men to give charge. Whereupon he answered the messenger that brought him these news, that he should tell Parmenion he was a madman and out of his wits, not remembering that if they won the battle, they should not only save their own carriage, but also win the carriage of their enemies: and if it were their chance to lose it, then that they should not need to care for their carriage, nor for their slaves, but only to think to die honourably, valiantly fighting for his life.

Having sent this message unto Parmenion, he put on his helmet. The rest of his armour he had put on before in his tent, which were a coat of the Sicilian make, girt close about him, and over that a breast-piece of thickly quilted linen, which was taken among other [spoils] at the Battle of Issus. His iron headpiece was as bright as silver, made by Theophilus the armourer: his collar [Dryden: gorget] was of the same metal, all set full of precious stones; and he had a sword by his side, marvellous light, and of excellent temper, which the king of the Citieians had given him, using commonly to fight with his sword at any set battle. His coat armour was marvellous rich, and of sumptuous workmanship, far above all the rest he wore. It was of the workmanship of Hellicon, which the Rhodians gave him for a present, and this he commonly wore when he went to battle.

Now when he did set his men in battle array, or made any oration unto them, or did ride alongst the bands to take view of them: he always used to ride upon another horse to spare Bucephalus, because he was then somewhat old: notwithstanding, when he meant indeed to fight, then Bucephalus was brought unto him, and as soon as he was gotten up on his back, the trumpet sounded, and he gave charge.

Then, after he had made long exhortations to encourage the men of arms of the Thessalians, and the other Grecians also, and when they had all promised him they would stick to him like men, and prayed him to lead them, and give charge upon the enemies: he took his lance in his left hand, and holding up his right hand unto heaven, besought the gods (as Callisthenes writeth) that if it were true he was begotten of Jupiter, that it would please them that day to help him, and to encourage the Grecians. The soothsayer Aristander was then a-horseback [near] Alexander, appareled all in white, and a crown of gold on his head; [he] showed Alexander, when he made his prayer, an eagle flying over his head and pointing directly towards his enemies. This marvellously encouraged all the army that saw it, and with this joy, the men of arms of Alexander's side, encouraging one another, did set spurs to their horse to charge upon the enemies.

Narration and Discussion

How did the sham battles between "Alexander" and "Darius" get out of hand? How were they resolved?

"I will not steal a victory." What did Alexander mean?

Why was Alexander able to sleep so well the night before the battle?

For those interested in military strategy: There are various opinions about whether Alexander meant to trick Darius by taking an unexpected northern route to Gaugamela, or whether he chose it to avoid the heat and have better access to food. There are also questions about why that part of the Tigris was undefended, and the Macedonians were able to cross it without trouble. Was Darius merely careless, or was he leading Alexander into a trap by choosing a battlefield that (he thought) suited his strengths?

Lesson Twelve

Introduction

This lesson ends the story of the Battle of Gaugamela, which marked Alexander's victory over the Persian Empire. It also introduces his new status as "King of Asia."

Vocabulary

dispersed themselves: broke ranks and ran away

let, hinder: get in the way or prevent

made no countenance to flee: seemed to have no intention of fleeing

Somewhat there was in it: There was some truth in it

continue the execution: continue what they were doing

laudable: praiseworthy

naphtha, bitumen: Bitumen is asphalt, and it was used in the ancient world for many purposes including mummification. The naphtha shown to Alexander may have been a crude oil version of the thicker, stickier bitumen. North spells it "naptha," but as that now commonly refers to mineral spirits, I have used "naphtha."

unctuous: oily

peradventure: perhaps

ready coin: metals already made into coins

tincture: dye mixture

People

Phayllos the wrestler: Phayllos of Croton, who commanded a ship at the Battle of Salamis in 480 B.C.

Harpalus: see introductory notes

On the Map

After the Battle of Gaugamela, Alexander headed south to Babylon, and east to Susa. He marched a long way to the northwest to arrive at Ecbatana; then, it appears, he returned south.

Reading

Part One

The battle [formation] of the footmen of the Persians began to give way a little, and before the foremost could come to give them charge, the barbarous people turned their backs, and fled. The chase was great, Alexander driving them that fled upon the midst of their own [ranks], where Darius himself was in person. He spied him afar off over the foremost ranks, in the midst of his life-guard, being a goodly tall prince, standing in a chariot of war, compassed in round with great troops of horsemen, all set in goodly ordinance to receive the enemy. But when they saw Alexander at hand with so grim a look, chasing them that fled through those that yet kept their ranks: there fell such a fear among them, that the most part dispersed themselves. Notwithstanding, the best and most valiantest men fought it out to the death before their king, and falling dead one upon another, they did let them that the enemies could not so well follow Darius. For they, lying one by another on the ground, drawing on to the last gasp, did yet take both men and horses by the legs to hinder them.

Darius then seeing nothing but terror and destruction before his eyes, and that the bands which he had set before him for safeguard came back upon him so as he could not devise how to turn his chariot forward nor backward, the wheels were so hindered and stayed with the heaps of dead bodies, and that the horses also being set upon and almost hidden in this conflict, fell to leaping and plunging for fear, so that the charioteers could no longer guide nor drive them: he got up upon a mare that lately had foaled, and so saved himself, fleeing upon her. And yet he would not have thus escaped, had not Parmenion once again sent unto Alexander to pray him to come and aid him: because there was yet a great squadron of Persians that made no countenance to flee. Somewhat there was in it, that they accused Parmenion that day to have dealt but slackly and cowardly, either because his age had taken his courage from him, or else for that he envied Alexander's greatness and prosperity, who against his [Parmenion's] will became over-great, as Callisthenes said. Alexander, though he was not a little vexed to be so recalled and hindered from pursuing his victory, yet concealed the true reason from his men, and causing a retreat to be sounded, as if it were too late to continue the execution any longer, marched back towards the place of danger. Notwithstanding, news came to him by the way that in that place also they had given the enemies the overthrow, and that they fled every way for life.

The battle being thus over, seemed to put a period to the Persian empire; and Alexander, who was now proclaimed King of Asia, returned thanks to the gods in magnificent sacrifices, and rewarded his friends and followers with great sums of money, and places, and governments of provinces.

Furthermore, to show his liberality also unto the Grecians, he wrote unto them that he would have all tyrannies suppressed throughout all Greece, and that all the Grecians should live at liberty under their own laws. Particularly also he wrote unto the Plataeians, that he would re-edify their city again, because their predecessors in time past, had given their country unto the Grecians, to fight against the barbarous people for the defense of the common liberty of all Greece.

He sent also into, Italy unto the Crotonians, part of the spoil, to honour Phayllos the wrestler who in the time of the wars with the Medes (when all the Grecians that dwelt in Italy had forsaken their natural countrymen of Greece itself, because they thought they could not otherwise escape), went with a ship of his unto Salamis, which he armed and set forth at his own charges, because he would be at the battle and partake also of the common danger with the Grecians. So affectionate was Alexander to all kinds of virtue, and so desirous to preserve the memory of laudable actions.

Then Alexander marching with his army into the country of Babylon, they all yielded straight unto him.

Part Two (optional)

In Ecbatana he was much surprised at the sight of the place where fire issues in a continuous stream, like a spring of water, out of a cleft in the earth, and the stream of naphtha, which, not far from this spot, flows out so abundantly as to form a sort of lake. This naphtha, in other respects resembling bitumen, is so subject to take fire, that before it touches the flame it will kindle at the very light that surrounds it, and often inflame the intermediate air also. The barbarous people of that country, being desirous to show Alexander the nature of that naphtha, scattered the street that led to his lodging with some of it. Then the day being shut in, they fired it at one of the ends, and the first drops taking fire, in the twinkling of an eye, all the rest from one end of the street to the other was of a flame, and though it was dark and within night, lightened all the place thereabout.

[Omission: a sadistic experiment with naphtha]

The manner, however, of the production of naphtha admits of a diversity of opinion…of whether this liquid substance that feeds the flame does not rather proceed from a soil that is unctuous and productive of fire, as that of the province of Babylon is, where the ground is so very hot that oftentimes the grains of barley leap up and are thrown out, as if the violent inflammation had made the earth throb: and in the extreme heats the inhabitants are wont to sleep upon skins filled with water. Harpalus, whom Alexander left there as his lieutenant and governor of that country, desiring to set forth and beautify the gardens of the king's palace and walks of the same with all manner of plants of Greece: he brought all the rest to good pass, saving ivy only, which the earth could never abide, but it ever died, because the heat and temper of the earth killed it, and the ivy of itself liketh fresh air and a cold ground. This digression is somewhat from the matter, but peradventure the reader will not think it troublesome, how hard soever he might find it, so it be not over-tedious.

Part Three

Alexander having won the city of Susa, he found within the castle four thousand talents [Dryden: forty thousand] in ready coin, gold and silver, besides other infinite treasure of inestimable value, amongst the which (it is said) he found to the value of five thousand talents' weight of Hermionian purple [cloth], that had been laid up there for a hundred and ninety years and yet kept its colour as fresh and lively as at first. The reason of which, they say, is that in dyeing the purple they made use of honey and of white oil in the white tincture, both which…preserve the clearness and brightness of their luster.

Dinon also relates that the Persian kings had water fetched from the Nile and the Danube, which they did lock up with their other treasures for a confirmation of the greatness of their empire, and to show that they were lords of the world.

Narration and Discussion

How did Alexander commemorate his victory at Gaugamela?

Why was the purple cloth considered such a treasure?

For further thought: The Persian kings seemed to have collected every kind of rich man-made treasure. But at the end of the lesson, Plutarch quotes a historian who said that Persian kings also collected natural treasures to show their ownership over the earth. If you have a nature collection, what does it mean to you? What other things might one collect that cost nothing?

Scientific narration: The naphtha demonstrations fall into the "don't try this at home" category, but older students may be interested in the technical aspects of this lesson, such as flammability.

Examination Questions for Term One

Younger Students:

1.       Write an account of Alexander the Great and Bucephalus.

2.       How did Alexander behave towards his physician when he was ill?

Older Students:

1.       Describe (a) the meeting of Alexander with Diogenes, and (b) how Alexander crossed the Granicus River.

2.       How did Alexander spend his days at a time of leisure?

3.       (Alternative) Describe (a) the personal appearance, and (b) the early education of Alexander.

End of Part I; Part II is here

AmblesideOnline Plutarch Readings:

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